Although the peasant and city workers' revolts were mostly unsuccessful, changing economic conditions and the increased value of scarcer labor gradually improved the lot of the poor in European society.
It’s interesting how even though most peasant and city worker revolts didn’t work out, things still slowly got better for them. As the economy changed and workers became harder to replace, labor became more valuable, and that helped improve life for the poor over time.
During most of this period, despite the occasional famine, Europe had more people than were strictly necessary to work the land, and feudal lords could easily replace runaways or rebellious peasants.
It’s interesting how, for most of this time, Europe actually had more people than it needed to work the land. Even though famines happened sometimes, there were still enough peasants that lords could easily replace anyone who ran away or caused trouble.
The number of deaths in Europe may have been higher because in the generation before the Plague's arrival, a climate change known as the Little Ice Age had caused crop failures and famine that had already reduced the rural population by up to 20% and had left the survivors malnourished and stressed
It makes sense why the death toll in Europe was so high during the Plague. Right before it hit, the Little Ice Age caused crop failures and famine, which had already wiped out up to 20% of the rural population. The people who survived were weak, stressed, and malnourished, so they were way more vulnerable when the disease arrived.
The Mongol Empire and the Pax Mongolica created a stable environment for long-distance trade and the Silk Road across Central Asia thrived.
It’s really cool how the Mongol Empire brought so much stability across Asia. Because of the Pax Mongolica, long-distance trade became a lot safer, and the Silk Road actually thrived during this time. It’s wild how an empire could make such a huge impact on global trade!
Externally, China introduced tea to Japan in 1191 and the presence of Chinese junks as far as East Africa is documented in both Chinese sources and Arab accounts.
I think it’s amazing how connected the world was back then! China introduced tea to Japan in 1191, and Chinese ships were sailing all the way to East Africa—something we know from both Chinese and Arab writers. It really shows how far their influence and trade networks reached.
These taught the seven liberal arts (trivium: grammar, rhetoric, logic; quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy), scripture, and liturgy. Cathedrals at centers like Chartres and Paris also ran schools at which more non-monastic students were welcome.
I find it so cool how these schools taught the seven liberal arts—the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy)—along with scripture and liturgy. Plus, big cathedral centers like Chartres and Paris opened their schools to students who weren’t monks, which helped education spread even more during this time.
In stark contrast with the Crusader victory over Muslim Jerusalem in 1099, Saladin did not sack the city and gave its Christian inhabitants safe passage to return to their homelands
I think it’s really striking how different Saladin’s approach was in 1187. Unlike the Crusaders who brutally sacked Jerusalem in 1099, Saladin didn’t destroy the city and even allowed the Christians living there to leave safely and return home. It really shows how differently the two sides handled victory.
Around the mid-11th century, Constantine fled North Africa due to political instability or accusations of sorcery and settled in southern Italy in Salerno, which was already a renowned medical center, and began translating Arabic and Persian works into Latin.
It’s so interesting how around the mid-11th century, Constantine had to flee North Africa—either because of political chaos or even accusations of sorcery—and ended up in Salerno, Italy. Since Salerno was already a famous medical center, he started translating important Arabic and Persian medical texts into Latin, which helped spread that knowledge across Europe.
The stone castles of Britain are all Norman or later. William built the Tower of London in 1078 and he and his heirs lived in it. The Plantagenets used it as a fortified residence but had their main residences at Westminster and Windsor castles.
It’s so cool how all the stone castles in Britain are Norman or later! William the Conqueror even built the Tower of London in 1078 and lived there, while later rulers, like the Plantagenets, used it for defense but preferred places like Westminster and Windsor as their main homes.
According to the Primary Chronicle (a 12th-century Rus text), he considered Judaism (from the Khazars), Islam (from the Volga Bulgars), Western (Latin) Christianity (from the Germans), and Eastern (Greek) Orthodox Christianity (from the Byzantines). V
It’s so fascinating how, according to the Primary Chronicle, this ruler actually explored different religions before choosing one! He looked into Judaism, Islam, Western Christianity, and Eastern Orthodox Christianity—it really shows how much thought went into shaping the beliefs of his people.
Europeans described their place in the world as Christendom. Especially when they faced challenges from outside their borders.
I think it’s really interesting how Europeans saw themselves as part of “Christendom.” It gave them a sense of unity and identity, especially when they were facing threats or challenges from outside their borders.
Internally, the Catholics regarded their Pope as the direct descendant of Saint Peter and thus the highest authority; while the Eastern Church preferred an ecumenical relationship in which the five patriarchs (of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria) would each have equal votes.
It’s interesting how the Catholic and Eastern Churches viewed authority so differently! Catholics saw the Pope as Saint Peter’s direct successor and the top leader, while the Eastern Church wanted all five main patriarchs to share power equally.
Elite residences and temples were destroyed and burned during this period, suggesting extreme social unrest. Between 850 and 900, population dropped by 90%. People didn't die, though; they moved. Some to the north, others just away from cities and ceremonial culture.
It’s crazy how intense this time was! Elite homes and temples were burned down, showing there was major social unrest. Between 850 and 900, the population dropped by 90%, but most people didn’t die—they just left the cities and moved elsewhere to start new lives.
Although typically only the pennies were minted and the other denominations were accounting units, this ratio continued in French livre, British £sd (until 1971), Italian lira, and Spanish libra.
It’s so interesting how old money systems worked! Even though people usually only minted pennies, the same value ratios lasted for centuries in currencies like the French livre, British pound, Italian lira, and Spanish libra.
After 802, every male over twelve years of age was expected to swear an "Oath of Fidelity" to Charlemagne as emperor, rather than to a local lord
I think it’s so cool how Charlemagne changed things after 802! Instead of people swearing loyalty to local lords, every man over twelve had to take an oath directly to him as emperor. It really showed how powerful and organized his rule was!
The Gothic War followed a successful campaign in 533 and 534 against the Vandals in Africa. Justinian considered the Ostrogoths usurpers in Italy as well as heretics who might persecute the Catholics in Italy.
It’s interesting how the Gothic War started right after Justinian’s big win over the Vandals in Africa! He saw the Ostrogoths in Italy as both illegitimate rulers and religious threats, so he set out to take Italy back under his control.
Muhammad and the Muslims had lived by caravan trading, and they continued this during their exile in Medina, gaining converts throughout Arabia. They fought their enemies in several battles during the 620s, and returned to Mecca in 630 when their opponents decided that resistance was futile.
It’s amazing how Muhammad and the Muslims kept going even in exile! They continued trading in Medina, spreading their faith across Arabia, and after years of battles in the 620s, they finally returned to Mecca in 630 when their enemies realized they couldn’t stop them.
This outbreak seems to have been a bubonic rather than pneumonic plague. The bacteria attacked the lymph system, resulting in fevers, egg-shaped, black buboes as the lymph nodes in victims' armpits and groins became overwhelmed, delirium, and a death rate of about 50%.
This outbreak sounds terrifying! It was probably a bubonic plague, not a pneumonic one, and it attacked people’s lymph systems, causing high fevers, black swollen buboes, and delirium. Half the people who caught it didn’t survive—it must have been absolutely devastating!
The Vandals crossed the Rhine in 406 CE. After their victory over Romans at Adrianople, the Visigoths under Alaric became foederati or allied troops. Roman armies at this time consisted mostly of mercenaries, rather than citizen soldiers. Alarics demands for land, titles, and money were ignored, and between 408 and 410 he besieged the city several times.
It’s wild how chaotic this time was! The Vandals crossed the Rhine in 406 CE, and the Visigoths under Alaric became allies of Rome after beating them at Adrianople. But when Rome ignored Alaric’s demands for land and money, he got fed up and ended up besieging the city multiple times between 408 and 410!
So, although the new faith attracted some educated members of the elite, who, for example, appreciated the similarities between its theology and the Platonic ideal of a world of perfect forms; it also attracted the poorest and more desperate members of society, with both assistance and support in the current world and hope for a better afterlife.
I think its so interesting how this new faith appealed to totally different kinds of people! Educated elites liked its deep ideas, like how it connected to Plato's perfect forms, but it also gave hope and support to the poor and struggling. it really reached everyone in some way!
The city was sacked by Gauls in 390 BCE, but recovered and expanded. A Latin League helped protect the city until 340 BCE, when Rome defeated its former allies and dissolved the alliance.
Wow, this is interesting — even though Rome was destroyed by the Gauls in 390 BCE, it didn’t give up and actually came back stronger! It’s kind of like a comeback story after a major setback. The Latin League was like a team-up for protection, but once Rome got powerful enough, it defeated its own allies and took full control — kind of like when a smaller group grows so strong that it doesn’t need help anymore and decides to lead on its own.
Zeno saw the universe as a divine entity, with humans sharing its rational spark. His Republic, written as a response to Plato's book of the same name, imagined a stateless community, which shocked Athenian elites
Wow, this is so cool — Zeno saw the whole universe as divine, and believed everyone shares a bit of its rational spark! It’s kind of like saying we’re all connected through the same energy or wisdom, like how people today talk about being “one with the universe.” His idea of a stateless community is also wild — it’s almost like an ancient version of trying to imagine a world with no governments or borders, just people living by shared reason and virtue.
hese paper, credit, or trust based payment systems had two important advantages. First, gold and silver were heavy and carrying them reduced the volume of goods a merchant could transport.
It’s so smart how paper and credit payment systems made trade easier! Gold and silver were super heavy, so using paper or trust-based payments meant merchants could carry more goods instead of piles of metal coins.
This halted the Umayyad advance into Europe, although they continued to hold a good part of southern France. Although technically not a king or even a duke, Charles Martel became the effective ruler of Francia until his death in 741.
It’s so cool how Charles Martel stopped the Umayyad advance into Europe! Even though the Umayyads still controlled parts of southern France, Martel basically became the ruler of all Francia without even being a king or duke. That’s real power!
A group known as the White Huns began raiding Sasanian-controlled Bactria and Khorasan by the late 4th century and put pressure on the Gupta Empire that led to its decline.
It’s crazy how much impact the White Huns had! By the late 4th century, they were raiding Sasanian lands like Bactria and Khorasan, and their attacks even helped cause the Gupta Empire’s decline. They really changed the course of history!
This message resonated with many in Galilee and later Judea and Jerusalem, which frightened some Jewish leaders.
Wow, this is really powerful, it shows how the message spread quickly and inspired people in Galilee and beyond. But it also caused fear among some leaders, kind of like when a new idea or movement challenges the way things have always been. It reminds me of how big changes in history often start with messages that make people both hopeful and uneasy at the same time.
Cleopatra sided with the friends of Caesar in the Liberators' Civil War, and began an affair with Marc Antony when they met in 41 BCE.
Wow, this is so dramatic. Cleopatra really knew how to stay connected to power! First she sided with Caesar’s supporters during the civil war, and then she started a relationship with Marc Antony. It’s kind of like how powerful people today form alliances to keep their influence strong, Cleopatra was doing the same thing, but with huge political stakes and empires on the line.
Cyrus conquered Babylon bloodlessly and became a sort of patron of the Jews. This relationship may have enhanced the influence of Cyrus' religion, Zoroastrianism, on the development of Jewish monotheism, as we will discuss shortly. Cyrus also planned and began building infrastructure like the Royal Road.
Cyrus is such a fascinating leader! He conquered Babylon without bloodshed, supported the Jews, and even started building amazing projects like the Royal Road. It’s wild to think how his actions might have even influenced the development of Jewish monotheism!
. The city became center of a new empire and its most famous ruler, Hammurabi, reigned between 3,792 and 3,750 years ago. Hammurabi is remembered for his law code, another ancient text written about 3,755 years ago. T
Wow, Babylon was such an important city! Its most famous ruler, Hammurabi, ruled almost 3,800 years ago, and he’s still remembered today for his amazing law code. It’s crazy to think that something written so long ago could shape how people lived and governed back then!
the secret of silk eventually spread to Korea and Japan, and then along the Silk Road in the first century of the common era. Sericulture reached India around 300 CE and Byzantium by 552. While China held the secret, silk was one of the most sought-after products of the ancient world; worth its weight in gold in imperial Rome.
Wow, silk is so cool! It started in China, then spread to Korea, Japan, India, and Byzantium. Back then, it was worth its weight in gold in Rome! I love how something so delicate could travel the world and totally change fashion, trade, and culture.