- Jun 2024
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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The three ways in which individuals escape from freedom are authoritarianism, or giving oneself up to some authority in order to gain the strength that the individual lacks, destructiveness, in which the individual tries to destroy the object causing anxiety (e.g., society), and automaton conformity, in which the person renounces their individual integrity.
One of Fromm's existential dichotomies is automaton conformity. This conformity drives people to blend into their social surroundings. Fromm believed this would lead to even more discourse in themselves. When we practice conformity we give up our individuality which causes an unsettling feeling as we realize, deep down, that this is not freedom(Fromm, 1942). I am going to use traditions as an example. Let's say traditionally all of your city has closed their businesses on Monday. You start a new business and choose to be open every day except for Sunday. You stay open on Monday. But you quickly learn this is not the norm and no one is even expecting a business to be open let alone actually frequenting that business. You stay open but your sales suffer. Do you choose to remain open on Mondays or do you conform? Do you try to change the tradition or do you conform? I have seen this play out in my own small town. There has been a shift in tradition but only when society as a whole begins to shift. In my case this meant bigger businesses (ie, corporate businesses such as McDonald's and Casey's) came to town and people recognized their traditions and shifted their own traditions to match the bigger companies. So they weren't so much getting rid of conforming to traditions, the town just changed their traditions.
Fromm, E. 1942. Mechanisms for escape from freedom. https://www.panarchy.org/fromm/escapefreedom.html
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Consequently, our freedom has become a psychological problem, it has isolated us from the connections necessary for our survival and development (Fromm, 1941). The danger with this situation, according to Fromm, is that when an entire society is suffering from feelings of isolation and disconnection with the natural order (from nature itself, in Fromm’s view), the members of that society may seek connection with a societal structure that destroys their freedom and, thus, integrates their self into the whole (albeit in a dysfunctional way).
Fromm's theory stated that freedom was a problem for humans due to the separation from nature it caused. Being separated from our basic instincts humans struggle to essentially find their identity. In doing so they encounter crisis which leads to mental un-wellness. As a society we have proven time and again that this disconnection from the natural order of things is beyond our scope of coping. Fromm uses STalin/Hitler as examples but more recently I think we can see this happening with former president Trump and his followers. We see this in members of cults. (I am not equating Trump supporters to cultists) I can see Fromm's theory playing out in many situations where humans feel powerless and seek power through connections with a belief or a person supporting certain beliefs.
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- May 2024
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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As the child continues to develop, it becomes intellectually capable of considering the mother, or any other object, as a whole. In other words, the mother can be both good and bad. With this realization, the child begins to feel guilt and sadness over the earlier fantasized destruction of the mother. This results in the depressive position, and it represents an advancement of the child’s maturity (Jarvis, 2004; Kernberg, 2004; Klein, 1946/1986; Mitchell, 1986).
Object relation theory - suggests relationships later in life were built on a foundation of early relationships. How we deal with out earliest relationships will have a direct impact on our relationships later in life. The most used example is an infants relationship to the mothers breast. The child reconciles their good and bad feelings by separating the breasts into good parts and bad parts. As a child experiences this good and bad, if the mother is good at meeting the childs needs the child will integrate the good and the bad and reconcile that with their own self. The problem comes when the needs aren't met satisfactorily and the child cannot resolve the good and bad in a mentally healthy way.
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As the child continues to develop, love becomes the manifestation of the life-instinct, and hate becomes the manifestation of the death-instinct (Mitchell, 1986). As for people in the child’s life, the child will begin to recognize both good and bad elements of their support for and relationship to the child. The child will also recognize good and bad aspects of its own thoughts and behaviors. As a result, the child will begin a process known as splitting, in which the bad parts of an object are split off and not allowed to contaminate the good parts of the object. In simpler terms, a child can continue to love its parents, even though there may be times that the parents do not satisfy the impulses of the child. Similarly, the child can continue to feel a positive sense of self-esteem, even though they sometimes fail or do bad things. Such split attitudes can continue into adulthood, and we sometimes hear people talk about “love-hate” relationships.
Splitting - this was a hard concept to understand. What do we lose when splitting occurs? Does splitting contribute to out self hatred?
Klein seems to asert that assimilation between good and bad self are a disator wating to happen. In her own words she stated, "It is impossible to split off a bad cruel part without splitting off something else as well. You cannot find yourself if you have split off part of yourself – even if it was the bad part."(Klein, 1963)
Klein, M. (1963) ‘On the sense of loneliness’ in Envy and Gratitude and Other Works: 1956-1963. London: Hogarth 1984. https://klein-archive.tumblr.com/post/649162839001628672/klein-on-the-value-of-splitting
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Klein believed that object relations are present at birth, and the first object is the mother’s breast (Klein, 1946/1986). Due, in part, to the trauma of birth, the child’s destructive impulses are directed toward the mother’s breast from the beginning of life. As the child fantasizes attacking and destroying its mother, it begins to fear retaliation. This leads to the paranoid position. Because of this fear, and in order to protect itself, the child begins the process of splitting the mother’s breast and itself into good and bad parts (the schizoid position). The child then relies on two principle defense mechanisms to reduce this anxiety: introjection leads the child to incorporate the good parts of the object into itself, and projection involves focusing the bad parts of the object and the child onto the external object. This introjection and projection then provide the basis for the development of the ego and the superego (Klein, 1946/1986; Mitchell, 1986).
Klein's object relation theory differs from Freud's psychoanalytical theory in several ways. While they seem to start at the same place, Klein's object relation theory diverges from the sexual concept Freud relied on and introduced the interpersonal connection all humans desire. This theory suggests the motivation of human behavior comes from connectedness and physical touch from others. Freuds theory relied heavily on a belief that the human sex drive was the prime motivator. How we reconcile our early experiences with the people in our lives carries a lot of weight in how we relate to people later in life. Fritscher, L. 23 Oct, 2023. What is object relation theory? VeryWellMind.com. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-object-relations-theory-2671995#:~:text=Object%20relations%20theory%20is%20all,significant%20people%20in%20your%20life.
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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The defense mechanisms are not all available to an individual at the same time. As originally proposed by her father, Anna Freud believed that the defense mechanisms develop with the structures of personality (the id, ego, and superego). For example, projection and introjection depend on the differentiation of the ego from the outside world, so they would not be available to the ego as defense mechanisms until the ego had sufficiently developed (and, perhaps, differentiated into the superego as well; A. Freud, 1936/1966). This became an important point of contention, however, with the English school of analysis that included Melanie Klein. Whereas Anna Freud and her colleagues believed that projection and introjection would not be available in early childhood, since the structures of personality have not adequately developed, members of the English school believed that projection and introjection were a necessary part of that development. Although this debate and others between Freudian and Kleinian theorists became rather bitter (Mitchell & Black, 1995), Anna Freud did acknowledge the following: These differences of opinion bring home to us the fact that the chronology of psychic processes is still one of the most obscure fields of analytic theory…So a classification of the defense mechanisms according to position in time inevitably partakes of all the doubt and uncertainty which even today attach to chronological pronouncements in analysis. It will probably be best to abandon the attempt so to classify them and, instead, to study in detail the situations which call for the defensive reactions. (pg. 53; A. Freud, 1936/1966)
Klein theorized that a child could both project and introject at a very young age in order to help them reconcile the idea of an object being both good and bad. During introjection a child fantasizes that an object is always there. While projection casts their most undesirable feelings onto another, most often the parent. Play therapy allowed a child to act out their aggressions but then also make reparations. When my husband and I divorced my youngest was 6. We took her to therapy. Her therapist incorporated play therapy. At the exact moment we, as a group of adults (mom, dad, and her therapist) told her mom and dad would no longer be living together she was playing with a plastic dog figure in a box of sand. She buried the dog and stepped on the sand. She then went across the room and drew a picture. She brought the picture back to the sandbox and dug up the dog and cleaned him up and started to show him the picture she drew for him The therapist explained that this was her way of reconciling her sadness over her families demise. It made a little sense to me at the time but after learning about Klein's theory it makes so much more sense.
https://www.integrativetherapy.com/en/articles-inc/article-figures/little-image003.gif
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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The two attitude-types are based on one’s orientation to external objects (which includes other people). The introvert is intent on withdrawing libido from objects, as if to ensure that the object can have no power over the person. In contrast, the extravert extends libido toward an object, establishing an active relationship. Jung considered introverts and extraverts to be common amongst all groups of people, from all walks of life. Today, most psychologists acknowledge that there is a clear genetic component to these temperaments (Kagan, 1984, 1994; Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo 1978), a suggestion proposed by Jung as well (Jung, 1971).
Introversion, the desire in ones personality to look inward for comfort and solace. Extroversion, the desire in ones personality to look outside of oneself for energy. An extroverted person will find themselves most comfortable in a social setting and will be most energized when surrounded by other people. An extrovert seeks out people in general to interact with and to exist with. They are often described as the 'life of the party.' While not always the case most extroverts find themselves in outward facing careers such as lawyer, teacher, flight attendant, performer, etc. In large companies this may be called customer facing jobs. In contrast, the introvert will find comfort when they are allowed to be alone and away from others. They are constantly looking to pull away from others and look inward. They are drained by others and their greatest peace is when they are at a distance where they can recharge. An introvert is not at all comfortable in social settings. They often seek jobs in research, graphic design, writing, or accounting. While growing up my family moved around a lot. The first thing my parents would do when we moved to a new town was to find a church to attend. I remember those first few sundays as torture for my little sister. We were 3 years apart and while I would be totally excited to meet new people and tell them all about my family and out travels she was completely panicked. She would cry and try to hide. I would stay with her, even if they tried to sperate us into different classes. I never understood until I got older why she had such a terrible time. She was and still is an introvert. I am an unapologetic extrovert.
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The two attitudes and the four functions combine to form eight personality types. Jung described a so-called cross of the functions, with the ego in the center being influenced by the pairs of functions (Jung, 1968). Considering whether the ego’s attitude is primarily introverted or extraverted, one could also propose a parallel pair of crosses. Jung’s theory on personality types has proven quite influential, and led to the development of two well-known and very popular instruments used to measure one’s personality type, so that one might then make reasoned decisions about real-life choices.
Jung's theory on personality types and the identification of introversion and extroversion have been some of the most useful work he contributed. His identification of the two attitudes and four functions have been used to create some of the most well-known personality tests we still use today. Isabel Myers developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or the MBTI. According to an article in Forbes Health this test assists companies in developing leadership and creating team building exercises(Spann, 2024). The MBTI, based on Jung's theories, helps people understand not only themselves but the people around them. This is so important in society. Understanding the people you live with and work with is vital to harmony. Spann, R. T. 5 Jan. 2024. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): a beginners guide. Forbes Health. https://www.forbes.com/health/mind/myers-briggs-personality-test/
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Jung did not place a limit on the number of possible archetypes, and he described quite a few in his writings. It did not matter to Jung whether archetypes were, in fact, real. In a perspective quite similar to cognitive theorists, he wrote that “insofar as the archetypes act upon me, they are real and actual to me, even though I do not know what their real nature is” (Jung, 1961). One of the more important archetypes is the self, which represents the integration of the whole personality. Indeed, Jung described the self as the goal of all psychic development. A special type of image often associated with the self, and with Jung himself, is the mandala. A mandala is a geometric figure that represents wholeness, completeness, perfection (Jung, 1958). They also tend to be symmetrical, representing the natural balance of opposites. Although they typically have religious or spiritual significance, it is not required.
The archetype 'self' is likely one of the more desirable archetypes. The mandala is used to center oneself. Mandala is an ancient Sanskrit word which means "magic circle." Mandala can be found in dreams, visions or can be created. I feel like this portion of Jung's theory may have come from his study of religions. Particularly eastern religions such as Buddhism. Mandala's are often found in monasteries and holy places.
Slegelis, M. 3 May, 2002. *A study of Jung's Mandala and its relationship to art psychotherapy. * The Arts in Psychotherapy, Volume 14, Issue 4, 1987, Pages 301-311, ISSN 0197-4556, https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-4556(87)90018-9. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0197455687900189) -
Jung described the shadow as “the inferior and less commendable part of a person,” and “a moral problem that challenges the whole ego-personality” (Jung, 1940, 1959c). It encompasses desires and feelings that are not acceptable to society or the conscious psyche. With effort the shadow can be somewhat assimilated into the conscious personality, but portions of it are highly resistant to moral control.
Our shadow self is an important part of our personality. As the part of our psyche that houses all undesirable behaviors and thoughts it acts as a balance to the moral good in our psyche. We able to compile this mass of knowledge of bad courtesy of our caregivers and authority figures as we grow. It is from them that we literally form our shadow.
Perry, C. 12 Aug, 2015. The Jungian shadow. https://www.thesap.org.uk/articles-on-jungian-psychology-2/about-analysis-and-therapy/the-shadow/
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