Building on these reconceptualizations of writing as a dynamic, multimodal, multilingual, and contextually responsive practice, this conceptual review article offers a comprehensive overview of the theoretical foundations and current research on writing at the intersection of multimodality and multilingualism.

Examining contemporary youths’ multilingual and multimodal communication practices, Jiang (2023) observed that multilingual youth used digital, multimodal, and multilingual composing to engage in social justice-oriented literacy actions,

Contextually responsive writing, therefore, requires writers to make strategic choices about language, structure, tone, and mode based on their purpose, audience, and medium.

In his Writer(s)-Within-Community (WWC) model of writing, Graham (2018) points out that writing is a multidimensional process that involves interactions between social, cultural, and historical dimensions and that is “simultaneously shaped and bound by the characteristics, capacity, and variability of the communities” (

The dynamic, multimodal, and multilingual nature of contemporary communication underscores the need to reconceptualize writing as a contextually responsive practice that is shaped by the specific social, cultural, rhetorical, and technological contexts.

When students are given the opportunity to make meaningful decisions about what they read, create, and write, they are more likely to invest in their learning, take intellectual risks, and develop stronger, more confident voices

Her work is further deepened by her intentional use of translanguaging practice, as she experiments with writing in two languages—English and Polish—that highlight her personal, cultural, and linguistic identities on the page. In doing so, Nowowiejska asserts her agency as a multilingual storyteller and takes ownership of both content and form to craft a piece that is deeply personal, culturally resonant, and rhetorically powerful.

Open-ended assignments are a powerful strategy for supporting student voice and ownership. Giving students flexibility in forms and formats (e.g., a podcast, a zine, a video essay) enables them to choose the modes of expression that best suit their ideas and assets. For instance, in a personal narrative unit, students can decide whether to write a traditional, linear narrative, produce a spoken-word piece, or design a digital story incorporating visual and audio elements.

Teachers can invite students to select topics, genres, and inquiries that resonate with their own interests, identities, and communities.

dal–multilingual pedagogies can be enacted across diverse educational contexts. Future studies might investigate, for instance, how diverse students’ engagement in multimodal–multilingual writing and content creation might improve intercultural communication and critical digital literacy.

The pedagogical shift toward multimodal–multilingual meaning-making necessitates attention to several key areas of instructional practice in the era of generative AI. First, educators must prioritize process over product. Writing should not be treated as a one-time performance, but as an iterative process of exploration and reflection. Accordingly, assessment practices, including rubrics and grading criteria, need to be reoriented to evaluate the process rather than a polished final product. Second, teachers need to find innovative ways to integrate AI tools to support teaching, learning and differentiated instruction. When thoughtfully incorporated, AI technologies can serve as mediational and assistive tools that can enhance learning. Third, it is essential to promote the responsible and ethical use of AI tools. Teachers should guide students in critically examining both the affordances and limitations of AI tools to help them discern what aspects of the process can be supported by AI and what should remain the work of the human writer/creator.

Generative AI tools, including those that can generate text (e.g., ChatGPT, Gemini), image (e.g., DALL-E, Canva), and audio (e.g., Voice Engine, ElevenLabs), not only challenge the traditional approach of teaching writing and literacy but, importantly, amplify the urgency of a pedagogical shift.

The integrative conceptual model of multimodal–multilingual meaning-making offers a theoretical synthesis that connects three key dimensions: (1) multimodality as semiotic resources, (2) translanguaging as a meaning-making practice, and (3) multilingual competence as a dynamic, adaptive resource.

, AI innovation, and diverse media platforms, demands that writing is understood as not just a linguistic and rhetorical act but a dynamic, multimodal, contextually driven process that integrates multiple semiotic and linguistic resources for meaning-making. This reconceptualization foregrounds how learners construct, negotiate, and circulate knowledge across languages, modes, and communicative contexts that reflect the complex realities of contemporary digital and global environments.

From a pedagogical perspective, this project highlights the importance of designing assignments that leave space for student-led inquiry, personal relevance, and multimodal expression. The student author had the freedom to choose the topic, audience, and modes of expression. It also illustrates how creative risk-taking can open up possibilities for who and what is represented in classroom discourse.

. By combining written English text, interactive American Sign Language (ASL) components, images and illustrations, and design elements, Bisiules uses multiple semiotic resources to challenge misconceptions and promote awareness around linguistic diversity and access.

Criticality can enable them to question dominant narratives, unpack systems of power, and analyze the social and political implications of texts, language, content, and information dissemination

Multimodal writing in a multilingual space is, in and of itself, a creative process, as students imagine, design, and combine multiple modes and languages to express ideas in novel and personally meaningful ways.

Writing assignments and opportunities are similarly designed to reflect this multimodal and multicultural ethos. Offering opportunities to compose in a variety of forms, and formats, such as digital storytelling, source-based arguments, critical reflections, personal stories, and counter-narratives, in multimodal and multilingual remixing taps into students’ creativity and innovation.

A systematic review of 111 empirical studies on translanguaging in U.S. PK-12 classrooms demonstrates that translanguaging is increasingly recognized not merely as a strategy, but as a natural and purposeful practice among multilingual learners

Critical inquiry and rhetorical analysis of these diverse materials are essential for helping students develop deeper awareness of how language, multimodal texts, and cultural representations shape meaning. I

Prioritizing diversity means curating texts and materials that represent a wide range of cultural, linguistic, racial, and gendered perspectives.

By intentionally integrating multiple modes of communication in both curricular materials and authentic assignments, teachers can create learning experiences that are accessible, engaging, and representative of how meaning is constructed in different ways and forms and that allow students to express their ideas and stories through a range of semiotic forms

Nurturing a multimodal–multilingual pedagogical ethos grounded in equity, inclusion, transformation, and innovation requires shared responsibility and a collective effort.

Developing students’ critical language and semiotic awareness is essential in interrogating how language and other modes of communication (e.g., visual, gestural, audio) are used to reproduce and resist systems of power and inequality.

CS-SFL pedagogy promotes heteroglossic language practices, linguistic pluralism, and semiotic awareness.

Culturally sustaining systemic functional linguistics (CS-SFL) offers a well-grounded pedagogical framework for centering the dynamic cultural, linguistic, and multimodal practices of minoritized students while expanding their access to academic, civic, and disciplinary discourses

Taken together, the growing body of research on translanguaging affirms its value as both a pedagogical orientation and a transformative framework in multilingual contexts.

While translanguaging practices in multilingual classrooms have been recognized for their benefits in promoting linguistic inclusivity and leveraging students’ full language repertoires, challenges exist in effectively implementing these practices due to teachers’ experience and professionalism, the linguistic needs of multilingual students, and teacher’s varying levels of familiarity and comfort with multilingual pedagogies (Ticheloven et al., 2019).

Recent research on translanguaging in multilingual classrooms has explored its impact on students’ perceptions, teachers’ beliefs, and overall classroom climate.

Charamba (2023) shows that, in a multilingual South African classroom, translanguaging serves as a powerful resource, rather than a hindrance, to help students generate scientific explanations, engage with disciplinary discourse, and negotiate meaning in complex content-rich contexts.

The review highlights its role in supporting sense-making, improving collaboration, fostering a sense of belonging and identity affirmation, and promoting more asset-oriented teacher beliefs.

Based on the theoretical foundations and extant research discussed above, this paper proposes an integrative conceptual model of multimodal–multilingual meaning-making in translingual multiliteracies communicative contexts

Together, the frameworks of social semiotics, the multilingual turn, and the multiliteracies approach offer a foundation for reimagining writing, literacy, and learning in ways that center accessibility, inclusion, and multiple means of meaning-making and expressions.

The multiliteracies approach, therefore, calls for an instructional focus and pedagogy that equip learners with the critical thinking and creative skills necessary to access, analyze, and produce digital and media texts.

Originally proposed by the New London Group (1996), the multiliteracies framework expands the concept of literacy beyond the traditional focus on reading and writing in a single, “standard” language.

The multimodal–multilingual pedagogical ethos also calls for culturally and linguistically responsive (CLR) practices, as educators navigate and respond to the semiotic, cultural, and linguistic complexities that students bring into the learning environment. The CLR pedagogical approach requires both flexibility and willingness to adapt teaching practices, curricula, and expectations in response to students’ diverse ways of knowing, expressing, and communicating (Paris & Alim, 2017). In linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms, this means moving away from rigid, one-size-fits-all models of instruction and assessment toward a responsive pedagogy that views learning as emergent, situated, context-dependent, and shaped by students’ lived experiences.

It calls for teachers and educators across varied contexts to respond to the evolving literacy needs of diverse student populations by adopting more inclusive, expansive, and culturally responsive pedagogies that reflect the realities of contemporary communication.

multilingualism is not just a matter of code-switching between “stable systems” but of meaning-making across a spectrum of languages and modes.

Recent scholarship further emphasizes translanguaging as a decolonial and emancipatory practice that resists dominant language hierarchies and affirms the identities and lived realities of multilingual learners

translanguaging posits “a unitary linguistic repertoire” (Vogel & García, 2017, p. 1) rather than separate, bounded language systems and describes the dynamic process by which multilingual speakers draw on their full range of linguistic and semiotic resources to make meaning across contexts (García & Wei, 2014; Wei, 2018).

Studies have shown that engaging students in multimodality and DMC projects enhances their engagement (Callahan & King, 2011; Harman & Shin, 2018), fosters a stronger awareness of audience and purpose (Cimasko & Shin, 2017), cultivates agency and ownership (Hepple et al., 2014), deepens understanding of semiotic resources and affordances across modes

writing also needs to be reconceptualized as a multimodal act to reflect the changing nature of communication, literacy, content creation, and information dissemination.

writing is not a static act but a recursive and innovative process characterized by a series of ongoing decisions, adaptations, revisions, experimentations, and negotiations that are shaped by shifting societal and rhetorical circumstances.

Conceptualizing writing as a dynamic practice means to see it not as fixed but rather a flexible and evolving process that changes depending on audience, purpose, context, and medium.

These practices unfold within multilingual spaces where students fluidly move across languages and language varieties and draw on diverse linguistic repertoires in a contextually responsive way.

The traditional conception of writing as linear, monolingual, and print-based is giving way to dynamic, multimodal, and multilingual practices shaped by digital technologies, transnational identities, and the creative remixing of multiple meaning-making resources.

the love of learning and research, the love for our communities and personal histories--that threads through the many stories the contributors share with readers.

, instead of asking students to develop a strong research question upfront, I encourage them to jump directly into their research. I want students to understand that it is okay not to know exactly where research will take them. While Serendipitys authors clearly agree with me in principle, I would have liked to see more examples of implementing concepts of kairos, as well as metanoia, for the writing classroom.

The Ethics of Serendipity," notes that serendipitous moments can sometimes arise from calamity or trauma, and that scholars need to consider ethical ramifications,

Lynee Lewis Gaillet's essay argues that we need to prepare ourselves for serendipitous moments "by faithfully following our own interests and curiosity, working together, and keeping an open mind"

Having moved to New Orleans three weeks before the storm, Piano's serendipitous timing "allowed [her] to rethink [her] connection to place and to others, often strangers, who had similar experiences"

In Shirley E. Faulkner-Springfield's "'Oh, My God! He Was a Slave!' Secrets of a Virginia Courthouse Archive," the author shares how her archival research revealed that her great-great-grandfather had been "a resilient survivor of... [the] narrative of slavery"

In first-year writing courses, I am often asked whether or not using first person pronouns are allowed. Behind this question are usually years of strict writing rules that forbid using "I" in academic writing. Instead of providing a simple answer to the question, I respond that it depends on the rhetorical situation. If there is an important reason to include yourself in the discourse--e.g., oral histories and personal essays--then using "I" makes perfect sense.

Goggin's collection "restores the human element of storytelling about adventures in the making, unmaking, and dissemination of knowledge"

The point of an informative essay is not to convince others to take a certain action or stance; that role is expressly reserved for persuasive essays. Instead, the main objective is to highlight specific information about your topic. In this project, you may be asking “after researching general aspects about my topic, what do I want others to understand about it?” Of course, if your informative essay is interesting enough, it may move readers to learn more about the subject, but they’ll have to come to that on their own, thanks to the wealth of interesting information you present.

The purpose of an informative essay, sometimes called an expository essay, is to educate others on a certain topic. Typically, these essays aim to answer the five Ws and H questions: who, what, where, when, why, and how. For this essay, you will focus on one or two driving questions about your topic, which will drive your research and help you reach a conclusion. The question can be one that emerged from your Exploratory Essay or it can be a brand-new question about your topic that you are interested in researching.

A synthesis can serve different purposes, depending on the assignment. In a background synthesis, your goal is to collect and organize information from various sources by topic or theme, presenting an overview of what is known about a subject. This type does not require an argument or thesis—it simply helps readers understand the current state of research or information. In contrast, a thesis-driven synthesis not only combines information from multiple sources, but also uses that information to support a central claim or argument. Here, you evaluate and interpret the sources to develop your own perspective or theory about the topic. Both types require you to organize information meaningfully, but a background synthesis remains neutral, while a thesis-driven synthesis aims to persuade or prove a point.

At its most basic level, a synthesis involves combining two or more summaries, but synthesis writing is more difficult than it might at first appear because this combining must be done in a meaningful way, and the final essay must generally be thesis-driven.  In composition courses, “synthesis” commonly refers to writing about printed texts, drawing together particular themes or traits that you observe in those texts, organizing the material from each text according to those themes or traits, and developing your own thesis or theory.  Sometimes, you may be asked to synthesize your own ideas with those of the texts you have been assigned. In your other college classes, you’ll probably find yourself synthesizing information from graphs and tables, pieces of music, and artworks as well.

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. Boundless Writing explains that a research paper is an expanded essay that relies on existing discourse to analyze a perspective or construct an argument. Because a research paper includes an extensive information-gathering process in addition to the writing process, it is important to develop a research plan to ensure your final paper will accomplish its goals. As a researcher, you have countless resources at your disposal, and it can be difficult to sift through each source while looking for specific information. If you begin researching without a plan, you could find yourself wasting hours reading sources that will be of little or no help to your paper. To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

The text Successful Writing stresses that when you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research. But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper. A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are. Linking verbs often make thesis statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue:

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement, an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing. Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper. The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details. Assertiveness A thesis statement that is assertive shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is authoritative and takes a stance that others might oppose. Confidence In addition to creating authority in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as “I feel” or “I believe” actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to say.

A thesis is not your paper’s topic, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to write about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful, and confident. A thesis is generally one to two sentences long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that will be demonstrated in the body. The thesis forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.

Transitions within a paragraph help readers to anticipate what is coming before they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases. Words like while, however, nevertheless, but, and similarly, as well as phrases like on the other hand and for example, can serve as transitions between sentences and ideas.

The topic may relate to your thesis statement, but you’ll need to be more specific here. Consider a sentence like this: “Cooking is difficult.” The claim is confusing because it is not clear for whom cooking is difficult and why. A better example would be, “While there are food pantries in place in some low-income areas, many recipients of these goods have neither the time nor the resources to make nutritionally sound meals from what they receive.” (Stylistically speaking, if you wanted to include “Cooking is difficult,” you could make it the first sentence, followed by the topic sentence. The topic sentence should be precise.) In expository writing, each paragraph should articulate a single main idea that relates directly to the thesis statement. This construction creates a feeling of unity, making the paper feel cohesive and purposeful. Connections between each idea—both between sentences and between paragraphs—should enhance that sense of cohesion.

In order to fulfill the requirements of strong primary support, the information you choose must meet the following standards: Be specific. The main points you make about your thesis and the examples you use to expand on those points need to be specific. Use specific examples to provide the evidence and to build upon your general ideas. These types of examples give your reader something narrow to focus on, and if used properly, they leave little doubt about your claim. General examples, while they convey the necessary information, are not nearly as compelling or useful in writing because they are too obvious and typical. Be relevant to the thesis. Primary support is considered strong when it relates directly to the thesis. Primary support should show, explain, or prove your main argument without delving into irrelevant details. When faced with lots of information that could be used to prove your thesis, you may think you need to include it all in your body paragraphs. But effective writers resist the temptation to lose focus. This idea is so important, here it is again: effective writers resist the temptation to lose focus. Choose your examples wisely by making sure they directly connect to your thesis. Be detailed. Remember that your thesis, while specific, should not be overly detailed. The body paragraphs are where you develop the discussion that a thorough essay requires. Using detailed support shows readers that you have considered all the facts and chosen only the most precise details to enhance your point of view.

An outline is a written plan that serves as a skeleton for the paragraphs you write. Later, when you draft paragraphs in the next stage of the writing process, you will add support to create “flesh” and “muscle” for your assignment. The outline will utilize the ideas you developed during the prewriting process. When you write, your goal is not only to complete an assignment but also to write for a specific purpose—perhaps to inform, to explain, to persuade, or to achieve a combination of these purposes. Your purpose for writing should always be in the back of your mind, because it will help you decide which pieces of information belong together and how you will order them. Three common ways to structure a paper are chronological order, spatial order, and order of importance. Choose the order that will most effectively fit your purpose and support your main poi

When you write, it is helpful when your ideas are presented in an order that makes sense. The writing you complete in all your courses exposes how analytically and critically your mind works. In some courses, the only direct contact you may have with your instructor is through the assignments you write for the course. You can make a good impression by spending time ordering your ideas. Order refers to your choice of what to present first, second, third, and so on in your writing. The order you pick closely relates to your purpose for writing that particular assignment. For example, when telling a story, it may be important to first describe the backstory. Or you may need to first describe a 3-D movie projector or a television studio to help readers visualize the setting and scene. You may want to group your support effectively to convince readers that your point of view on an issue is well reasoned and worthy of belief. In longer pieces of writing, you may organize parts in different ways so that your purpose stands out clearly and all parts of the paper work to consistently develop your main point.

Craft features are the tools a writer uses to tell stories. Some examples of craft features include theme, characterization, setting, mood, imagery, persona, and plot–these help you to shape and craft your story. Craft features, stylistic elements, or literary devices are all synonyms for the same basic idea–these are your writer’s toolbox, and using craft features effectively in a piece of writing tells the reader that you know your focus, and you are using craft as support for your larger idea–some people call it theme, some people call it a universal experience.

Creative writing can take place in a variety of forms: poems, short stories, memoirs, novels, and even song lyrics. Literacy narratives can also be classified as creative nonfiction. Narratives whether in the form of a poem, a story, or an essay, often attempt to achieve, or create, an effect in the minds of the readers. In this class, you will only write nonfiction, but if you would like to learn more about creative writing, check out the creative writing courses the CNM English department offers: English 2120 (nonfiction), English 2310 (three genres of CW), English 2320 (fiction), English 2330 (poetry). Additionally, the student literary journal at CNM, Leonardo, publishes creative nonfiction, fiction, and poetry. If you write a memoir for class that you are proud of, consider submitting your memoir essay to Leonardo, which accepts submissions in the fall and spring semesters. To learn more, email leonardo@cnm.edu. The intended effect of creative writing differs depending on the writer’s goals. The intention or purpose may be to expound on the grieving process (catharsis), or to encourage an emotional response from the reader, for example, making a person laugh or cry. The potential results are unlimited. Creative writing can also be used as an outlet for people to get their thoughts and feelings out and onto paper. Many people enjoy creative writing but prefer not to share it. For this class, be prepared to share your narratives with your teacher and potentially classmates if your teacher uses peer review.

After you choose a topic, critical reading is essential to the development of a topic. While reading almost any document, evaluate the author’s point of view by thinking about his/her main idea and support. When you judge the author’s argument, you discover more about not only the author’s opinion but also your own. If this step already seems daunting, remember that even the best writers need to use prewriting strategies to generate ideas.

When you begin prewriting consider why you are writing (to inform, to explain, or some other purpose) and for whom you are writing. With your narrowed focus in mind, answer the bulleted questions in the checklist for developing a good topic. If you can answer “yes” to all the questions, then you have a good topic. If you answer “no” to any of the questions below, think about another topic or adjust the one you have and try the prewriting strategies again.

You’ve probably heard that one quality found in good writing is voice. Voice refers to elements of the author’s tone, phrasing, and style that are recognizably unique to her or him. Having a distinctive, persuasive voice is crucial to engaging your audience — without it, your paper risks falling flat, no matter how much research you’ve compiled or how well you’ve followed other directions. Yes, academic writing has rules about format, style, and objectivity that you must follow, but this does not mean you can write boring, impersonal prose. You can — and should — develop an authorial voice no matter what subject you choose to write about.

Tone identifies a speaker’s attitude toward a subject or another person. You may pick up a person’s tone of voice fairly easily in conversation. A friend who tells you about her weekend may speak excitedly about a fun skiing trip. An instructor who means business may speak in a low, slow voice to emphasize her serious mood. Or, a coworker who needs to let off some steam after a long meeting may crack a sarcastic joke. Just as speakers transmit emotion through voice, writers can transmit a range of attitudes through writing, from excited and humorous to somber and critical. These emotions create connections among the audience, the author, and the subject, ultimately building a relationship between the audience and the text. To stimulate these connections, writers portray their attitudes and feelings with useful devices, such as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and formal or informal language. Keep in mind that the writer’s attitude should always appropriately match the audience and the purpose.