ypothesized that code-switching is possible because bilinguals have nonselective access to both languages

language into a sentence in another languag

Both compound bilingualsandless proficient bilinguals

Latino population is the largest minority group in the U.S

N200 and N400

stressed​​and​​withdrawn​​at​​times

found​​that​​the​​passing​​of​​DACA​​produced​​positive​​mental​​health​​effect​​on​​children​​born​​toundocumented​​mothers.​​

On​​September​​5,​​2017,​​Attorney​​General,​​Jeff​​Sessions​​announced​​that​​the​​Trump​​Administration​​was​​endingthe​​Deferred​​Action​​for​​Childhood​​Arrivals​​program,​​passed​​into​​action​​in​​2012​​by​​the​​administration​​of​​formerPresident​​Obama.

American​​dream

En AmPrique du Nord, les mPdius bombardent les jeunes femmes de messages qui tentent de les d$nir. Quoiqu'il y ait eu des recherches sur l'injluence des mPdias sur les jeunes jlles, on ne connait pus celles sur les Jilles et lesfemmes qui manipulent les midias a leuravantage. Duns cetarticle I'auteure discute de I 'importance et des limites des (( zines w comme moyens de rPsista nce

zine

“monotone drone of mainstream media”

Both my friend and I identify as queer, despite being in partnerships with individuals of the opposite sex that mir-ror a heterosexual family structure.

bland or hyperbolic,

"Othered"

ocial, political, and economic considerations are at the heart of language planning.

explici

Pollito Chicken

La tipa del 306 no se sabe si es gringa o pueltorra, bródel. Pide room service en inglés legal pero, cuando la pongo a gozal, abre la boca a grital en boricua

Sorry

Suburban Americans estrenando su primer cheque del Social Security

la blancura

Con lo atrasada y underdeveloped que ella había dejado esa isla diez años ag

Y todavía esos filthy, no-good Communist terrorists se atrevían a hablar de independencia

Cuando Suzie Bermiúdez se casara porque maybe se casaría para pagar menos income tax--sería con un straight All American, Republican, church-going, Wall-Street businessman, como su jefe Mister Bumper porque ésos sí que son good husbands y tratan a sus mujeres como real ladies criadas con el manual de Amy Vanderbilt y todo

Pensó con cierto amusement en lo que hubiese sido de ella si a Mother no se le ocurre la brilliant idea de emigrar. Se hubiera casado con algún drunken bastard de billar, de esos que nacen con la caneca incrustada en la mano y encierran a la fat ugly housewife en la casa con diez screaming kids entre los cellulitic muslos mientras ellos hacen pretty-body y le aplanan la calle a cualquier shameless bitch.

se sintió como si estuviera bailando un fox-trot en la azotea del Empire State Building

un bus o algo por el estilo y refugiarse en los loving arms de su Grandma en el countryside de Lares.

frankfurter

prefería mil veces perder un fabulous job antes que poner Puerto Rican en las applications de trabajo y morir de hambre por no coger el Welfare o los food stamps como todos esos lazy, dirty, no-good bums queeran sus compatriotas

reprimiendo

benévola inflexión

corroboró

spike-hee

o si estaba arrepentida porqueno fue todas las cosas que quiso ser.

Mi nombre

Me gustaría bautizarme yo misma con un nombre nuevo, unnombre más parecido a mí, a la de a de veras, a la que nadie ve. Esperanzacomo Lisandra o Maritza o Zezé la X. Sí, algo así como Zezé la X estaríabien

I often see this difference in who gets praise for speaking Spanish play out in my job as a college Spanish instructor

There Is Nothing Wrong With Julián Castro’s Spanish

hypersexuality.

itisevidentthattheseinitiativeshavebeencentraltothedevelopmentandconceptualizationofU.S. La­tinidad.

TalkingBack

Latino/Hispanic

Playtheroleyouneverplayedbefore.Bethethingthatismost oppositetoyoursense ofself.Imaginethatnothingisforeign,andeveryonecouldbe acousinto you.ListentothemusicthatfollowsthepathoftheGyp.syfromIndiatoAndaluciatoHavanatoNewYork.Andaboveall,dance,dance,dance

WithinNewYorknowM'T'"Cubans,andacansandSalvadoransareseeminglyincessant.

IfBulworth,theleadcharacterofWarrenBeal’sm,suggeststheanswerisforAmericanstokeepfuckingealemm1they’rethesamecolor,thenAmericashoLunderstandtlnlrocl:,“fo”-h-dred-yoarheadstartontheminna

Ifsadynamic,hyperactivestateofabsorptionandre-creationthatwillinevitablychangeAmerica fromwithin.

bythelossofthemodemsubject,thenLatin-nesshasevolvedfromaculturewherethatsubject,teeteringontheedgeofeco­nomicinsecurity,hasalwaysbeenindoubt

thePuertoRiocalledLivinLaVidaLoca,"instantlycreatingaSpanglishclich/”rbTw"""ChicaLg4life’n;"41Allisoninder.lon,hee4r:4:4asrn?

sciousnessofLatinAmerica,intoNorthAmericandiscourseintro­ducesanotherlevelofclassanalysis.Thehemisphericclassstructureintroducesavastunderclass,the armyofworkers(alongwithwork­ersinAsiaandotherpartsoftheThirdWorld)thathasmadetheso-calledClintonianeraofprosperitypossible.Theworking-classdreamofAmericansisbasedonthenightmareoftheunderclassofAmerica.ThenewimmigrantsfromLatinAmericaneverquitelosetouchwiththeirhomelands;infact,theyareoftenactivelyengagedintransferringwealthtothefamiliestheyhaveleftbehind.Theyaretranscendingthepost-colonial,semi-EuropeanclassstasisofLatinAmericaandengaginginNorthAmericanclassmobility.ThroughLatinos,America’s domesticpolicybecomesforeignpolicy.Thesamelandsofforces,thatis,thedirectculturalidentification'withoutsidecountriesthatledAmericaintoWorldWarsIandII,willeventuallyleadittoconfronttheeconomicdestructionitisvisit­ingupondiesoudi.ThemakingofanAmericanbeginsatthatpointwherehehimselffleetsallotherties,anyotherhistory,andhimselfadoptsthevestureofhisadoptedland.—JamesBaldwinLiving inSpanglisharguesthatwearealreadyAmerican.

WorshipofwhitenessisperhapsmoreinsidiousinLatinAmer­ica__someofthemostdramaticinstancesoccurintheCaribbean.

MichelFou­caultcallsaheterotopicspace—“alandofeffectivelyenactedutopiainwhichalltheotherrealsitesthatcanbefoundwithintheculturearesimultaneouslyrepresented,contested,andinverted.”

StargolferTigerWoodscallshimself“cablinasian,”truncatingCaucasian,black,Indian,andAsian

LatinAmericanunity.

hyper-miscegenated,

categorizedasasinglebrownmass

LIVINGINSPANGLISH

phenomenon

pseudosci­entific

allegories

AndsometimescountrieslikeMexicoactu­allyexaltedandcelebratedindigenousculturetomakeitpartofthetwentieth-centuryideaofnationalism.

defacto

miscegenation

flinch

Forcenturies,manyLatinAmericanshavebeenonadrearyquesttolightenthesldn,bettertherace,m^orarlaraza,toachieve socialstatus

orphan,ahybrid,amule

Themosthumanizedhumancollectivesalwaysappear,inthelastresort,tobetheproductnotofsegregation,hutofsynthesis

blackandwhite

Spanglishiswhatwespeak,but itisalsowhoweLatinosare,andhowweact,andhowweperceivetheworld.Itsalsoawaytoavoidthesectariannatureofother labelsthatdescribeourcondition,termslikeNnyorican,Chicane,CubanAmerican,Dominicanyork.Itisanimmediatedeclarationthattranslationisdefinition,thatmovementisstatusquo.

static.

What’sinaname?Arose,nomatterwhatnameitgoesby,willalwayssmelljustassweet

WhatI'mTalkingAboutWhen1SpeakinSpanglish,ortheSpanglishManifesto

Spanglishisaboutnothavingtoidentify witheitherblackorwhite,whileatthesametimehaving thecapac­ityto“be”both.WecanevenbebothHispanicandLatino.

miscegenation

bastardized

Themosthumanizedhumancollectivesalwaysappear,inthelastresort,tobetheproductnotofsegregation,hutofsynthesis.

thecloserwegettotheborder,theharder itgetstoseeit

emplateforthewholesociety

hybridlanguage,aninformalcode;

Linguistic (In)securityand Latina/o Unity

“Mexico is gross,” “they eat dogs,” “they eat cattamales,” and “I went to Juarez and there are little girls with babies begging.”Would they be any less disparaging if they knew Spanish? Perhaps not, but atthis point they are unable to communicate with Mexicans

monolinguals

exacer-bated

intra-sententially

Extensive English in an individual or community’s repertoire is a sign ofassimilation to US culture, casting doubt on the legitimacy of a Latin Americanidentity

Extensive

hybrid

The Destructive Influence of English

Higher rates of linguistic insecurity among Dominicans and PuertoRicans and lower rates among Colombians and Cubans occurred in severalmeasures, and this pattern appeared related to lower or higher rates of education.

NACO

(‘ghetto’) black Spanish”

Dominicans demonstrated a higher levelof linguistic insecurity than the other groups of Latinas/os, and at both educa-tional levels

Castilian

the destructive influence of English on Spanish and on Latin Americannational identity

he superiority of the Spanish of Spain and the local “norma culta,” particu-larly of highland South American dialects

capital

hegemonic

Many learn to becomeAmerican by first becoming Mexican in the ways they speak in public,

English

AAVE

repertoire

enclaves

linguistic flag

ncapsulates a sociolinguistic truism

“Incorrect” aspects of grammar or pronunciation label theirspeakers as inferior, with an added injury not inflicted by racial comparisons, i.e.,no one expects you to be able to change your color, but you are expected tochange the way you speak radically to earn respect (Urciuoli 1996). Foreignlanguages are intrusive and Spanish, in particular, invades “white public space

by the ways in which they respond to theconstruction of their linguistic identities

Dime con quién hablas,y te diré quién eres”

acist remarks are censored, comments about the inferiority and/orunintelligibility of regional, class, and racial dialects of Spanish and Englishsubstitute for abusive remarks about color, hair, lips, noses, and body parts, withthe same effect

and they are ridiculed for i

Languageis a major form of unequally distributed capital in society’s marketplace

Latina/o identity in the USA is often linked to Spanish, presumedto be the heritage language of more than 40 million people with roots in 20Spanish-speaking Latin American nations, including Puerto Rico

Latina/o bilinguals often blur the boundaries between Spanishand English in ways that reflect new ethnic and racial identities.

indigenouslanguag

“Dime con quién andas y te diré quién eres” (“Tell me who you go about withand I’ll tell you who you are”) warns that we are judged by the company wekeep

Afro-Latino

SHIFTING NEGOTIATIONS OFIDENTITY IN A DOMINICANAMERICAN COMMUNITY

PuertoRicans,inturn,enteredtheU.S.spherefollowingtheU.S.invasionoftheircountryin1898.Uponitsmilitarydefeat,SpainsignedthecontroversialTreatyofParis,inwhichittransferreditscolonialpowersoverPuertoRicototheUnitedStates.PuertoRicansbecamecitizensoftheUnitedStatesbyaunilateralactofCon­gressin1917.ThedegreeofpoliticalautonomyenjoyedbyPuertoRicanshasin­creasedthroughouttheyears,but theUnitedStateshasnevergivenupitsultimatepoweroverPuertoRico.

Afro-Antillean

ModernPuertoRicansociety,Gonzalezexplains,isdominatedbyapopularcul­tureinwhichtheAfricanrootsare“moreimportant”thantheEuropeanorTamorootsandthathas"anessentiallyAfro-Antilleancharacter.”^Gonzalez’sviewwas anticipatedbythepoet LuisPalesMatosinaninterview

PuertoRicansocietymighthavebeenbifurcatedalongraciallinesuptotheendofthenineteenthcentury,whenitssenseofnationalitywasstilldeveloping.Then, Jose LuisGonzalezinsists,thePuertoRican“nationwassodivided racially, socially,economically,andculturally,thatweshouldinsteadtalkoftwonations

imagination

“Indian”and“Asian”Latino/ashave beenleftoutofthepicture

Atthetime,Iwasonlyakidfacingan unexpectedsituation.Today,havingnowlivedintheUnitedStatesforoverfifteenyears,Ihavecometoregardthiskindofquestioningasnormal.Infact,untilrecently,Iconsideredmyselfbeyondastonish­mentwithrespecttoissuesofracialcategorization.IthoughtthatIwouldalways findaboxsimplylabeled"PuertoRican,”“Hispanic,”“Latino,”“SpanishSur-named,”oreven“Other”withwhichIcouldfeelcomfortable.

WhiteHispanicsandBlackHispanics,however;arecovered bytwoofthecategories.Inordertobeaccurate,theywouldhavetocheck, inadditiontotheHispanicbox,eithertheboxlabeled‘White’orthatlabeled‘Black.’Wejustwant tomakeitclearthatforourpurposes,theyareHispanic,evenifthey areadditionallyWhite orBlack.We wanteachpersontochooseonlyoneoftheop-,tions.

Theterm“Hispanic”hasbeenrejectedbysomebecauseofitsassociationwithSpan­ishcolonialpower.Theyprefer“Latino”becauseitlacksanysuchconnotationandismoreinclusiveanddescriptive

“Hispanic”

White(non-Hispanic),”“Black(non-Hispanic),”“Hispanic(IncludingWhiteandBlack Hispanics),”“AsianAmerican,”“AmericanIndian,”and“Other.

YetIwascaughtoffguard evenbeforetheexaminationbegan.WhileIwas fillingoutthepersonalinformationpart,Iwasaskedtoidentifymyselfracially.Thisstruckme asoddfortworeasons.Ihadneverbeenaskedsuchaquestionbefore,andIhadnever thoughtofmyselfintermsofrace,eventhoughIwasawareoftheconceptofracialdifferences.Iknewaboutthehistoryandrealityofracism,yetIdidnotseemy­selfasamemberofaparticularrace.

Incontrast,whenwewenttotheirland,wewerepooi;didthemostmenialjobs,andscoredthelow­eston intelligence tests.Therefore,thetesthadagreatermeaningforme.Itsymbol­izedAmerica’s continuingdominionandcontroloverPuertoRico.Iwasdeterminedto wageabattlethatIcouldultimatelywin

SoyMexicanasoyMexican-AmericansoyAmericanofSpanishSurname(A.S.S.)soyLatinasoyPuertoRiquenasoyCocoanutsoyChicana

aptitude

tallLatino/asmtheUnitedStatesspeakSpanish,buttheyallhavesomeconnec­tionwithIt.IftheydonotspeakSpanishthemselves,thenitisthelanguage oftheirancestors.

physiognomy

condemnsracial”subcategories,suchas“BlackHispanics”andWhiteHispamcs.whichhavebeenincreasinglygainingcurrency,andultimatelysuggeststhatsuchcategoriesshouldberejected.

Re-imaginingtheLatino/aRace

T H ROU GH T H E L OOK I N GGL A SS OR B ECOM I N GT H E DA T U M

Basque Studies Program

I had a $ 30,000 grant from the National Institute of MentalHealth

In short, we were in danger of becomingan ethnic newspaper. Our compromise was to institute a free subscription and no advertisingpolicy while including in each issue a feature article which addressed a Basque topic in layman’sterms. However, despite our never quite becoming an ethnic newspaper the newsletterundoubtedly expanded both the breadth and depth of Basque-American reality. Through itspages Basques in one part of the American West expanded their awareness of those in otherparts, and all Basque-Americans were brought a bit closer to Old World Basque culture. Thenewsletter also helped Basque-Americans to deepen their knowledge or their own ethnic identityand thereby provided it with greater content

to govern is to populate

First and Second Carlist wars

Second Carlist War

The ultimate benefits of formal education weredifficult to discern for many Basque ranching families, particularly since they barely translatedinto advantage in local terms and could well suppose that the educated person would haveto move away in search of employment in his or her profession.

guile

rustration of being monolingual Basque speakers in a system dominated by French or Spanish.

scarcely valued

hus, the Basqueherder became the object of magazine and newspaper articles as well as filmdocumentaries

ameliorated

curtailment

a demographic crisis precipitated by the curtailment of Basque immigration in theAmerican West beginning with changes in U. S. immigration policy in the 1920s. AsOld World Basques died or returned to Europe there was awareness of a growingdisjuncture among Basque-Americans regarding the Basque part of their hyphenatedselves. Stated differently, the identity was becoming contentless; it required consciouseffort if it were not to be abandoned altogethe

internalization by persons of Basque descentof what might be defined as a new Basque-American ethnic identity.

However, from the broader regional perspective it remained fragmentedand compartmentalized.

The upshot was that there was a mosaic of Basque-American realities createdin the American West segregated from one another by both time and space.

contentless

hyphenated

disjuncture

a precipitate of its own history as wellas of developments beyond its control within the wider social and cultural settings

Reno, Boise, Stockton, Fresno and Bakersfield,

feel Basque in order to be Basque

BSP

It gave them a feeling of connection, knowing that other herders would some day see their message

207 When the Basques left their homeland. the intent was to stay only long enough to earn the capital required for the trip home and a business when they got there

The percentage of success stories is small of the Basques returning to their homeland within a few short years after immigrating, as prospective businessmen happy to remain in the old country. However, as immigrants desiring to make something of themselves and be recognized in their new country as the honorable upright citizens that they are, the Basques have ultimately succeeded

Basque culture taught that rural life was one of "personal dignity and independence, .. a way of life to be treasured: whereas life for the city worker was one of hard work under someone else·s direction. In Basque society, the eagerness to do hard work is greatly respected. However, the Basques prefer to work for themselves only, even to the exclusion of working for other Basque people.2 Continually being under another person's authority was seen as a loss of identity and independence.3

The major probiem, though, was psychological, living with the boredom and isolation from other humans.25 Numerous herders were unable to deal with this facet of their occupation. Many quit. Others remember crying themselves to sleep. Some actually went crazy.

forego

outfits

Many sheepmen who employed the herders would hold back their wages for a year at a time. Some would hold these earnings until the herder quit, even if it was 25 years after he was hired.

Although the itinerant sheepmen were on public ground, cattle ranchers and land-owning sheepmen openly resented them. 15 The opportunity for future financial independence prompted many herders to take their wages in live sheep. This further increased the number of roaming sheepmen with no land base, who continued to crowd the land-owning ranchers. Friction between the landowners and the landless continued. William A Douglass wrote, in Basque Sheepherders of the American West, that the itinerant sheepherder usually moved on after a confronta-tion with a cowboy about trespassing. Sometimes " tempers flared and reason was replaced by violence. More than one herder was roped and dragged behind a horse, just as more than one buckaroo fell to a herder's .30-30 rifle. "16 However, Amerikanuak, written by William A. Douglass and Jon Bilbao, states to the contrary: " The resort to serious violence was both rare and limited to the particularly hot-tempered

Cattlemen had been accustomed to uninhibited use of the public lands bordering their deeded ranches, and the arrival of the roving sheep operators was a rude awakening.

roving

deeded

uninhibited

ndustrial Revolution in Europe

1850s

Land was scarce in the Basque countries: therefore. to stay meant living and working in the cities.

scarce

201 BASQUE SHEEPHERDERS BY ELVA AYLESWORTH Over 100 years ago, the Basques began immigrating from Spain and France to this country

Basque

E lko County

oneDominicanteen­agertoldherDominicanboyfrienddiatshewasgladhedidnotspeakSpanishbecause“Ican’tstandhicks.

HELANGUAGEANDTDENTITYPARTOFTHELATIN®AGENDA FORTHETWENTY-FIRSTCENTURY

DeletionishighestintheDominicanRepublic

(Idistinguishthem,inacaricature-likemanner,bytheirdiet:thehighlandseat[drop]theirvowels,thelowlandseattheirconsonants.

"goodEnglish,”idealbilinguals,andinviolablelanguageboundariesandculturalidentitie

Whetheryou speakSpanishorabandonitforaLatin®varietyofEnglish, youcannotescapebeingidentifiedasdisordered andignorant,

anthropoliticallinguistics

Latin®bilingualsoftenblurtheboundariesbetweenSpanishandEnglishtofacilitatetheadopdonofnewwordsandwaysofspeakingthatreflectnewethnicandracialidenuties

ecede

asthoughseparatelanguagesexisted

heycrossednationalboundariesintheirproudsupport

compatriots

Latin®LanguagesandIdentities

Chicanosandotherpeopleofcolorsuffereconomicallyfornotacculturating.Thisvoluntary(yetforced)alienationmakesforpsychologicalconflict,akindofdualidentity

Dimeconquienandasytedir4quieneres.(TellmewhoyourfriendsareandI’lltellyouwhoyouare.

BeingMexicanisastateofsoul

Identityistheessentialcoreofwhoweareasindividuals,theconsciousexperienceoftheselfinside.

code

Ethnicidentityistwinskintolinguisticidentity—Iammylanguage.UntilIcantakeprideinmylanguage,Icannottakeprideinmyself

estimationofme