while Pong dock was a citizen (despite being of Mongolian descent), he was, according to the Kentucky constitution, a member of neither the white nor the black race and therefore was not entitled to an education in the state.

Right here in camp, during the summer months, we have a sort of 'summer school' conducted for the benefit of all children, to t~ach them the fundamentals of the Spanish lan-guage. It may be surprising to note that the teacher's services are free. Surely, one that is unselfish enough to do this for nothing must be reward-ed for his efforts by knowing that his pupils are learning.

"1fn the other hand, nearly all educators agreed that Mexican were poetic in nature, philosophical, artistic, and more adept at handwork-~~ at a-~~ work.

In addition to school segregation, many northern white school au-thorities during the first four decades of the twentieth century urged separate "tracks" for black (and, in some instances, certain immigrant) children with different curricula on the grounds that they were intel-lectually ill-equipped to engage in rigorous academic study.

They have no tradition of civilization and educa-tion as we have .. . . They are still dirty, lazy, loud and not too pleasant to have living nearby. »

they know how to treat colored people down there .. .. Why, if these peo-ple had done in Texas what they've done here, or had done it in any of the Southern states, they' cl have been lynched. They would have gone to whatever school the whites told them to and be mighty glad to have the chance."

Mauy white education scholars argued that black chtlclren would fare better iu separate schools under _the \utelage _of ?lack teadit.:rs

The problem of retardauon 1s more serious among colored chil-dren than among any other racial group. I am inclined to be lieve that the further extension of segregation . . . is the only real practical solution."

the n~wly ar~1ved sou~hern migrant children were not equipped to engage m studies alongside white chil-dren because of their poor educational backgrounds

but the NAACP made few claims of intentional segregation during the 19:20s and 1930s and of-fered the New York City elementary schools as a model for other cities ~o emulate.

placing a screen around the desk of a black student to shield him from his white classmates.'1:l

[i]n 1910, colored men could be entertained in the best hotels in Cleveland, Detroit and Chicago. Today [in 1934], th ere is not a single Northern city, except New York, where a Negro can be a guest at a first-class hotel."

White demands for segregation in public accommodations, housing, and education sharply increased during the 1920s.

Some migrants were drawn northward by the promise of better ed-ucational opportunities, as southern black schools were grossly un-derfunded.

white Oberlin students be-gan to protest having to eat at the same dining hall tables with black students.

By the onset of World War I ' many hotels and restaurants in Cleveland that had once freely served black customers had implemented a color line

"Progressive educators" encouraged teachers to understand Indian children as products of a "different civilization" rather than a "lower civilization." Tea-chers began to incorporate Indian music and other arts and crafts into the curriculum. They attempted to improve students' facility with English by motivating them to retell tribal legends or describe aspects of home life in their writings.

Indian "uplift" policies, it was sometimes charged, encouraged attitudes of dependency rather than self-reliance and individual initiative. Government programs designed co feed, clothe, and house as well as educate Indian youth were thought by some to reward laziness and create an expectation chat the government would and should provide for those who do not provide for themselves.

The commissioner observed that over the previous 33 years, the government had spent over $240 million in an attempt to move Native Americans from dependency to self-reliant citizenship.

although as in the case of different immigrant groups, inconsistencies in the application of policies and wide variations in responses among individual Indians and their tribal groups work against neat generalizations.

The explanation offered for this is that as Irish gradually moved into positions of political, economic, and social power and came to occupy more teaching positions in the public schools, the school achievement of their children rose substantially.

sought to remove corrupt school management from city schools. For centralizers, much of the corruption found in urban neighborhoods and exploited by urban machine politicians resulted from the presence of immigrant communities that did not understand American culture.

The academic track appealed mainly to upper-and middle-class students of Anglo descent, the commercial track was populated largely by middle-class girls, and the vocational track was reserved for lower-class boys, quite often from immigrant families.30

The NSPIE quickly became involved in advocating for industrial (or trade) schools, where students could learn the skills needed for industrial and manufacturing jobs.

They wanted to see the high schools offer commercial subjects and also work in manual training like woodworking and metallurgy.

It quickly became known as a conservative document because it refused to accommodate those who wanted to diversify the high school curriculum to include subjects considered practical and relevant in the commercial and industrial worlds. From their perspective, the Committee of Ten had turned its back on the world in which many if not most of the high school students would take their places.

This group was further offended by the assumption that college-bound students did not need a curriculum that differed substantially from that of the non-college-bound.

First, the committee believed that no difference in the course of study should exist for college-bound and non-college-bound students.

The fundamental issue that both critics raised was the prob-ability that the public schools were becoming less and less schools of the people, alienated from the ordinary working citizens they were supposed to serve.18