Have your ever been told to “revise” your paper or to “edit” a peer’s paper?

Even here, however, it’s important to think about how your feedback will be received. Tone matters

As the author of the draft being reviewed, how does that kind of feedback feel? Were you motivated to excel?

you can also construct thoughtful and unique narratives using solely images or using images to supplement your writing. A single photograph can tell a story, but a series will create a more cohesive narrative. To experiment with this medium, try the following activity.

Directly, through specific description of the character—What kind of clothes do they wear? What do they look, smell, sound like?—or, Indirectly, through the behaviors, speech, and thoughts of the character—What kind of language, dialect, or register do they use? What is the tone, inflection, and timbre of their voice? How does their manner of speaking reflect their attitude toward the listener? How do their actions reflect their traits? What’s on their mind that they won’t share with the world?

A Non-Comprehensive Breakdown of POV Pronoun Use Definition Examples 1st person Narrator uses 1st person pronouns (I/me/mine or us/we/ours) Can include internal monologue (motives, thoughts, feelings) of the narrator. Limited certainty of motives, thoughts, or feelings of other characters. I tripped on the last stair, preoccupied by what my sister had said, and felt my stomach drop. 2nd person Narrator uses 2nd person pronouns (you/you/your) Speaks to the reader, as if the reader is the protagonist OR uses apostrophe to speak to an absent or unidentified person Your breath catches as you feel the phantom step.   O, staircase, how you keep me awake at night. 3rd person limited Narrator uses 3rd person pronouns (he/him/his, she/her/hers, they/they/theirs) Sometimes called “close” third person. Observes and narrates but sticks near one or two characters, in contrast with 3rd person omniscient. He was visibly frustrated by his sister’s nonchalance and wasn’t watching his step. 3rd person omniscient Narrator uses 3rd person pronouns (he/him/his, she/her/hers, they/they/theirs) Observes and narrates from an all-knowing perspective. Can include internal monologue (motives, thoughts, feelings) of all characters. Beneath the surface, his sister felt regretful. Why did I tell him that? she wondered. stream-of-consciousness Narrator uses inconsistent pronouns, or no pronouns at all Approximates the digressive, wandering, and ungrammatical thought processes of the narrator. But now, a thousand empty⎯where?⎯and she, with head shake, will be fine⎯AHH!

The sequence and pacing of your plot—the order of the events and the amount of time you give to each event, respectively—will determine your reader’s experience. There are an infinite number of ways you might structure your story, and the shape of your story is worth deep consideration.

tone – the emotional register of the text. Compare with mood.

epiphany – a character’s sudden realization of a personal or universal truth. See dynamic character.

Historians synthesize and interpret events of the past; a history book is one of many narratives of our cultures and civilizations. Chemists analyze observable data to determine cause-and-effect behaviors of natural and synthetic materials; a lab report is a sort of narrative about elements (characters) and reactions (plot). Musical composers evoke the emotional experience of story through instrumentation, motion, motifs, resolutions, and so on; a song is a narrative that may not even need words.

Strong description helps a reader experience what you’ve experienced, whether it was an event, an interaction, or simply a place

Thick description as a concept finds its roots in anthropology, where ethnographers seek to portray deeper context of a studied culture than simply surface appearance.  In the world of writing, thick description means careful and detailed portrayal of context, emotions, and actions. It relies on specificity and rich milieu to engage the reader.

Good description lives and dies in particularities. It takes deliberate effort to refine our general ideas and memories into more focused, specific language that the reader can identify with.

One of the traditional ways of thinking about the rhetorical nature of description is to distinguish between “objective” and “subjective” descriptions. In early 20th-century textbooks, such as F.V.N. Painter’s Elementary Guide to Literary Criticism, we get the following definitions:

HOOK ― stops, gestures at the back CONFLICT ― “What’s the deal with the spotlight?” COMPLICATIONS ― “I’m sixty-one years old! How hard can it be?” EPIPHANY ― “Look, I’ll tell you what I’ll do: I’ll face the direction I’m going to walk.” CLIMAX ― exaggerated turn and step RESOLUTION ― spotlight jerks, audience roars

Projecting emotion is important but tricky. Good writers don’t want to overdo it, and they don’t want to use fallacious or unethical approaches, such as fear mongering. Done well, emotional appeals can have a powerful lingering effect.

When instructors say, “Show, don’t tell,” this is what they mean. Telling is weaker because it gives a secondhand report:

Masters of language also recognize that all external input comes in five tangible forms: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. The mind connects concrete input, such as a citrusy scent, to previous knowledge, like Grandma’s grapefruit trees, while abstract ideas often vaporize.

The human brain is programmed to dismiss what it already understands but perk up when startled by something new. Awareness of that unfamiliar thing might improve chances of survival, so our minds snap to attention. Writers who incorporate the unexpected in strategic ways—with a shocking statistic in a report or a fresh take on a classic recipe or an unheard-of position on a controversial subject—are more likely to hook their audience.

Consider the simplicity of Seinfeld’s response. He stopped. He focused his gaze at the origin of the spotlight. He took a direct approach. And he kept it concise. He could have gone into a drawn-out rant, venting anger instead of appealing to the audience. Instead, he kept his grievance simple and funny.

One piece of context is who the speaker or publisher is. What’s their expertise? What’s their agenda? What’s their record of fairness or accuracy? This is why we investigate the source. Just as when you hear a rumor you want to know who the source is before reacting, when you encounter something on the web, you need the same sort of context.

In this case, your best strategy may be to ignore the first source that reached you and look for trusted reporting or analysis on the claim. If you get an article that says koalas have just been declared extinct from the Save the Koalas Foundation, your best bet might not be to investigate the source, but to go out and find the best source you can on this topic, or, just as importantly, to scan multiple sources and see what the expert consensus seems to be

You want to use a part of the author’s argument to express your own thoughts. The author’s words are written so perfectly that you cannot improve them by paraphrasing. You want to criticize the author’s original words. You want to avoid plagiarism (i.e., claiming someone else’s words are your own).

Write the information in your own words. Keep the author’s original intent and meaning. Focus on key ideas. Shorten the original passage. Include the citatio

When including a source in a longer writing situation, such as a researched persuasive essay, it’s often helpful to remind your reader how the ideas developed in the paragraph relate to the broader argument (thesis statement).

The first sentence(s) of a paragraph should either 1) state the paragraph’s main idea or point, or 2) carefully introduce the source by identifying the author and title.

MEA(L) paragraph

Students feel confused because they see very different strategies when looking at news articles vs. social media vs. peer-reviewed articles

There are different rules for quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing

These sources could be personal interviews that you conduct or your quoting of experts in their fields–individuals like scientists, doctors, attorneys, psychologists, authors, journalists, speakers, and the list goes on. Ensuring that you capture the words of others or essence of their message accurately and efficaciously is an essential quality of a meticulous writer.

simply paraphrasing key ideas and points from a source can serve as a form of discussion.

The evidence that you have provided is old: The information that you are citing is not relevant anymore. It is outdated!

As you develop your research-supported essay, consider not only what types of evidence might support your ideas but also what types of evidence will be considered valid or credible according to the academic discipline or academic audience for which you are writing.

The evidence provides the foundation upon which the entire argument rests.

the Reasoning, is often the bulk of an academic persuasive essay.

The information question above can be quickly answered by a few google searches. The second, which includes the word should, is open-ended and can be endlessly debated

Could someone disagree with your claim? If so, why? Explain this opposing perspective in your own argument, and then respond to it. Could someone draw a different conclusion from any of the facts or examples you present? If so, what is that different conclusion? Explain this different conclusion and then respond to it. Could a reader question any of your assumptions or claims? If so, which ones would they question? Explain and then respond. Could a reader offer a different explanation of an issue? If so, what might their explanation be? Describe this different explanation, and then respond to it. Is there any evidence out there that could weaken your position? If so, what is it? Cite and discuss this evidence and then respond to it.

counterargument. Sometimes called naysayers or opposing positions, counterarguments are points of view that challenge our own

In common language, the term “right” tends often to mean something good, something people ought to have (e.g., a right to a good home, a right to a meaningful job, and so on). In law, however, the term has a much more specific meaning. It refers to something to which people are legally entitled. Thus, a “legal” right also confers a legal obligation on someone or some institution to make sure the right is conferred.

Hook: It opens with a brief hook that illustrates an emerging issue. This concrete, personal anecdote grips the reader’s attention.

Attention grabber Explanation of issue and needed background Writer’s thesis (claim) Forecasting passage Confirmatio Presentation of writer’s position Main body of essay Presents and supports each reason in turn Each reason is tied to a value or belief held by the audience Confutatio Summary of opposing views (Counterarguments) Response to opposing views  (Rebuttals) Summary of views differing from writer’s Shows weaknesses in opposing views May concede some strengths Peroratio Conclusion Brings essay to closure Often sums up argument Leaves strong last impression Often calls for action or relates topic to a larger context of issues

Exordium

an argument essay needs a detailed plan, before the drafting stage. For an argument essay, start with a basic outline that identifies the claim, reasoning, and evidence, but be prepared to develop more detailed outlines that include counterarguments and rebuttals, warrants, additional backing, etc., as needed.

Proposal arguments–which propose that something should, ought to, or must happen–may be one of the most common kinds of arguments we encounter in our day-to-day lives; however, despite how often we find them, they can actually be rhetorically quite complex, perhaps because they appear deceptively simple to make.

The proposal method of argument is used when there is a problematic situation, and you would like to offer a solution to the situation. The structure of the proposal method is similar to the other persuasive methods, but there are slight differences.

Argumentative writing generally exhibits the following: Presents a particular position/side of an issue Attempts to persuade the reader to the writer’s side Uses elements of rhetoric and strategies that include the integration of logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos in intentional and meaningful ways Presents information, data, and research as part of the evidence/support (logos) Relies on real-world stories and examples to nurture empathy (pathos) Leans on experts in their fields to cultivate credibility (ethos) Enlists or elicits a call to action (kairos)

a question that doesn’t have a straightforward answer a claim that responds to the question one or more reasons for accepting the claim evidence that backs each reason objections & response to objections

Take notice when you make a decision about your writing based on who you (author) are writing to (audience), or why you are writing (purpose), or the circumstances of your writing (context/situation), or what “type or kind” of writing you thought would be best to use (genr

Genre is one element of rhetoric. Genre, in its most basic meaning, means “a type, or kind” of text. Texts can be described as, or categorized into, genres. The effectiveness or appropriateness of a specific genre of text depends on the situation in which it is occurring.

Additionally, if a writer covers a topic or puts forth an argument about a subject that is currently a non-issue or has no relevance for the audience, then the audience will fail to engage because whatever the writer’s message happens to be, it won’t matter to anyone.

If appropriate timing is not taken into consideration and a writer introduces a sensitive or important point too early or too late in a text, the impact of that point could be lost on the audience.

When reading, you should always think about the author’s credibility regarding the subject as well as his or her character. Here is an example of a rhetorical move that connects with ethos: when reading an article about abortion, the author mentions that she has had an abortion. That is an example of an ethical move because the author is creating credibility via anecdotal evidence and first person narrative. In a rhetorical analysis project, it would be up to you, the analyzer, to point out this move and associate it with a rhetorical strategy.

Ethical appeals have two facets: audience values and authorial credibility/character. On the one hand, when an author makes an ethical appeal, he or she is attempting to tap into the values or ideologies that the audience holds, for example, patriotism, tradition, justice, equality, dignity for all humankind, self preservation, or other specific social, religious or philosophical values

he or she is trying to tap into the audience’s emotions to get them to agree with the author’s claim. An author using pathetic appeals wants the audience to feel something: anger, pride, joy, rage, or happiness.

Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective. When an author relies on logos, it means that he or she is using logic, careful structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience. An author can appeal to an audience’s intellect by using information that can be fact checked (using multiple sources) and thorough explanations to support key points. Additionally, providing a solid and non-biased explanation of one’s argument is a great way for an author to invoke logos.

The coldest, most straightforward formulation of the argument is found in version 1. Argument 2 sounds more informal, in part because it uses the second person “you,” but also because it pleads with the reader by appealing to their imagination. Concrete imagery is one type way to practice pathos. Argument 3 uses the emotionally charged language of pathos again, but now enhanced by a kind of moral superiority over the reader.

Once we understand the rhetorical situation out of which a text is created, we can look at how all of those contextual elements shape the author’s creation of the text.

Rhetorical appeals include ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos. These are classical Greek terms, dating back to Aristotle, who is traditionally seen as the father of rhetoric

To think rhetorically about purpose is to think both about what motivated writers to write and what the goals of their texts are.

The writer (also termed the “rhetor”

The concept emphasizes that writing is a social activity, produced by people in particular situations for particular goals. It helps individuals understand that, because writing is highly situated and responds to specific human needs in a particular time and place, texts should be produced and interpreted with these needs and contexts in mind.

the production of knowledge through language”

If you have ever experienced the awkwardness of an email message or social media post that was misinterpreted by others in the worst possible way, you are familiar with this phenomenon.

Ethos –  An ethical appeal meant to convince an audience of the author’s credibility or character. Pathos –  An emotional appeal meant to persuade an audience by appealing to their emotions. Logos –  An appeal to logic meant to convince an audience by use of logic or reason.

Every communication situation is different, with different goals, contexts, and audiences, and thinking rhetorically is a flexible process that allows you to adapt to, as Aristotle put it, “any given situation.” You can think of rhetoric like a toolbelt. When using your tools, you don’t always use a tape measure first, then a hammer, then a screwdriver. In fact, you don’t always carry the same tools to different jobs. Depending on the job, you use different tools in different ways and in different orders to accomplish your task. Rhetoric is the same way.

Importantly, connecting with others leads to action that alters the physical world around us, leading to the production of art and music, protests and performances, and even new buildings and spaces for people to conduct their lives. Understanding that rhetoric makes things can provide a reason to care about it and motivation to practice it.

rhetoric is a kind of work that creates things of value in the world. In other words, rhetoric creates attention to the world around us and particular people, places, and ideas in it.

Determining the use of and quality of rhetorical strategies (pathos, ethos, logos, and kairos) used by others, see the Reading and Writing Rhetorically chapter for more information

In-depth exploration helps us to more effectively understand issues in society and our daily lives, including but not limited to the articles and books we read, the videos we watch, the brands and ads that influence our buying habits, and the songs we listen to