Isabel was most likely engaging with French physicist André-Marie Ampère’s most famous publication - Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience. The work that is now recognised as the founding treatise of electromagnetism is used by James to underscore Isabel’s vast education, particularly in a period of rapid scientific and technological advancement. The nineteenth century was littered with discoveries in physics and electricity, and also might be characterised as around the time of the onset of the female struggle for a scientific education and career, exemplified by Mary Sommerville, a contemporary of Ampere. It is notably ironic that in this moment of independent education, Isabel should be in conversation with the man who would eventually represent the undermining of the heroine’s independence. Nevertheless, this subtle reference exemplifies Isabel’s self-motivated pursuit for knowledge through the practice of wide reading – an undoubtedly central element of her character.

References:

Ampère, AM 1826, Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience, The British Library.

Collins, H 2022, Mary Somerville: Her Legacy for Women in Science, The Oxford Scientist, accessed 13 July 2022, https://oxsci.org/mary-somerville-her-legacy-for-women-in-science/.

Lambert, T 2021, Science and Technology in the 19th Century, Local Histories, accessed 13 July 2022, https://localhistories.org/science-and-technology-in-the-19th-century/.

James’ reference to Saint Peter’s Basilica, the most famous Roman Catholic church across the globe, is a call back to Isabel’s previous visits to the Basilica, namely in chapter 27 when she attends with Gilbert Osmund and others. The significance of attending vespers at Saint Peter’s is an underlying notion throughout the novel’s Roman scenes. In his visits to Rome, Henry James wrote of the looming shadow cast onto Saint Peter’s Square, situated in front of the Basilica, offering shade to walkers and tourists and resembling the look of a country on a map. This unique shape is enabled by the Doric colonnades and various structures and statues that surround the square. James particularly describes Saint Peter’s in the context of its magnificence and enormity, as Osmund notes in Chapter 27 that “it makes one feel like an atom”. James was clearly captivated by the sheer size of Saint Peter’s and this manifests in his characters’ frequent desire to spend time loitering in its shadows.

References:

Encyclopaedia of Art History, Saint Peter's Basilica (Rome) (1506-1626), accessed 15 July 2022, http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/saint-peters-basilica.htm.

James, H 1909, Italian Hours, https://www.romeartlover.it/James.html#Pietro.

Drinking games have been enjoyed throughout history for thousands of years, with some of the oldest recorded games dating back to Ancient Greece, Rome and China. One of the oldest Roman games, popularised in antiquity, is known as Passatella – a group affair that might be characterised by themes of power and social capital as two individuals in the group decide how much wine the others get to consume. Another drinking game commonly played in Italy is Patrunni E Sutta, which involves players drinking copious amounts of beer or wine. Like many other games involving alcohol, drinking games across Italy are rooted in proving oneself as superior to one’s counterparts through public displays. James suggests that this desire for outward validation extends to broader Roman (or perhaps European) social and cultural life, as Gilbert Osmund has harboured an urge “to have something or other to show for his parts” for most of his life, thus it only makes sense that this fundamentally human trait would inform the drinking practices of such a society.

References:

Encyclo, Patrunni E Sutta Definition, accessed 15 July 2022, https://www.encyclo.co.uk/meaning-of-Patruni_e_sutta

Davis, J 1964, ‘Passatella: An Economic Game’, The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 191-206.

The Villa Borghese is the third largest public park in Rome, located on the Pincian Hill, and is favoured for its elaborate outdoor greenery and historical art and sculpture collections. The Borghese gardens are home to the Piazza di Siena – an old, oval-shaped racing track that is now used for performances and show-jumping competitions. In the late 19th century context of Portrait of a Lady, it is likely that the Piazza di Siena was not used for such purposes, but, as James illustrates, for loitering excursions amongst the “sweet meadow-flowers” and “mossy marbles”. James’ description is reflective of the stone steps that once surrounded the course, covered in persistent, overgrown grass and the stone-pine trees that lined the long sides of the track, behind the steps. This area was a common destination for walkers, who would interject their activity with momentary breaks on the mossy steps, thus rendering their walks “slow” and “irregular”. James’ draws a comparison between the historical and unmoving Borghese gardens and Gilbert Osmund’s “complacency”, however, readers should note that the Piazza di Siena was once characterised by fast-moving athleticism, equestrian pursuits and bustling crowds.

References: Platt, CA 1893, Italian Gardens, Harper & Brothers, New York.