Disambiguation is done by appending the political division to the name of the place in order of specificity. If this fails to uniquely determine locations, distances to the closest reference points in the text are used to break ties.

lynching was a ritual that made power visible, yet its power depended in part on its lack of visibility in the official records.

Lynching was present at all times: an unusual moment of terrorism whose power was brought home with regularity.

aimed to bring the hidden patterns

In fact, Mathews turns away from the empirical and quantitative methods most akin to data visualization in history.

with religious meaning as with political meaning

The fault is not with the source, since it is the borrowing for humanistic projects that is problematic, not the statistical graphics themselves. They work just fine for statistical mat:te

graphical expressions suited to the needs and methods of humanists should get a boost from exposing the operations and limitations of current conventions.

people and their social lives based on metadata only, without much reference to the actual content of what they say.

I will show how we can use this “metadata” to find key persons involved in terrorist groups operating within the Colonies at the present time

metadata

indicating the degree to which Jefferson relied on his staff to implement his various directives

You’ll notice that I’ve arranged the correspondents in groups—indicated by the different colors

 It’s an arc diagram that visualizes the people with whom Jefferson corresponded about James Hemings.

both those that the editors missed, and there are quite a few, as I’ve discovered in my research; and those that refer to Hemings by one of his several nicknames

—not just in the archival record, but the voices themselves, are silent, and irretrievably lost?

as big a proportion

increase. In comparison, the use

abstracts generally, not to an increase in absolute numbers o

we

uggested that women’s history disproportionately focuses on very recent and on U.S. history topics. Here

Because topic modeling transforms or compresses free data (raw narrative text) into structured data (topics as a ratio of word tokens and their strength of representation in documents) it is tempting to think of it as “solving” text

It describes a method of extracting clusters of words from sets of documents.

Definition (explicit and implicit opinion)

facts and opinions.

wedo. When you don't expect much from tools, it shifts the interpretative responsibility for making senseof the rich variety of ways that texts can be represented

recognizing characters in handwritten documents),

legal reasons (

The hundred hours of video uploaded to YouTube everyminute would remain largely inaccessible were it not for text-based searches of the title, description, andother metadata.

called “intelligent” and blacks more likely to be called“natural.”

Each text is converted into a matrix of word frequencies, transforming it into an entirely numerical dataset.

The computer is directed to create a set of probability tables populated with random numbers, and then it gradually refines them by computing the same pair of mathematical functions hundreds or thousands of times in a row.

Needless to say, any attempts at finding direct correlations between historical events and stylistic breaks are subject to human prejudices

the method of plotting and inspecting the trend may be applied only to verify hypotheses stipulated earlier by traditional diachronic linguistics.

the involuntary nature of unemployment

The results also suggest that all six measures of psychological well-being are lower in middle age compared with younger and older age groups. In addition, women appear to be less affected by unemployment than men.

Kievit et al.Simpson’s paradoxFIGURE 1 | Example of Simpson’s Paradox.Despite the fact that thereexists a negative relationship between dosage and recovery in both malesand females, when grouped together, there exists a positive relationship.All figures created using ggplot2 (Wickham, 2009). Data in arbitrary units.Here, we argue that (a) SP occurs more frequently than com-monly thought, and (b) inadequate attention to SP results inincorrect inferences that may compromise not only the questfor truth, but may also jeopardize public health and policy. Weexamine the relevance of SP in several steps. First, we describeSP, investigate how likely it is to occur, and discuss work show-ing that people are not adept at recognizing it. Next, we reviewexamples drawn from a range of psychological fields, to illus-trate the circumstances, types of design and analyses that areparticularly vulnerable to instances of the paradox. Based on thisanalysis, we specify the circumstances in which SP is likely tooccur, and identify a set of statistical markers that aid in its iden-tification. Finally, we will provide countermeasures, aimed at theprevention, diagnosis, and treatment of SP—including a softwarepackage in the free statistical environment R (Team, 2013) createdto help researchers detect SP when testing bivariate relationships.WHAT IS SIMPSON’S PARADOX?Strictly speaking, SP is not actually a paradox, but a counterintu-itive feature of aggregated data, which may arise when (causal)inferences are drawn across different explanatory levels:

This apparent paradox has signifi-cant implications for the medical and social sciences:

have had sex with either exclusively the same sex or both sexes in the past year;have had sex with either exclusively the same sex or both sexes in the past 5 years;have had at least one same-sex sex partner since 18;have had at least half of sex partners since 18 to be of the same sex.

are 33percent larger than that which is observed in wage function estimates

arriving at these results, I am the first to be able tocompare self-identified sexual orientation with the sexual behavior proxies utilizedin the bulk of this emerging literature

But a lack of data has complicated efforts to understand the aggregate effects of myriad federal, state, and local efforts to reduce reoffending.

Longer-term recidivism also fell. Prisoners released in these states in 2010 were 13 percent less likely than the 2005 cohort to return to prison at least once by the end of the fifth year after release

This might include differences in the individual characteristics of prisoners, changes in sentence length of those released, or the relative number of releases from each state.

The BJS study includes only those sentenced to one year or more, whereas Pew has included all releasedprisoners in each year.

collects data submitted voluntarily by state departments of corrections and parole.

n the development of national income accounts and related measures of macroeconomic behavior. The new DAE program is concerned mainly with long-term chan

nineteenth century. Similar cycling appears to have occurred in England. A variety of factors, including crop mix, urbanization, occupation, intensity of lab

1 don·1 sec the validity of that set-I ransformation

That represents tJ1e condition of the Empire .:tr pres• enc.

nough. And wh:11 of the numerical probahility of tot:LI ck• struc..-tion within tl1rec centuries

Desmond’s ultimate policy solution is a universal housing voucher program, which would certainly alleviate the eviction crisis, but will require a long-term push of political will and does nothing to disrupt the profitability and exploitation in the landlord-tenant relationship that Evicted draws attention to.

data gathered by the corporation is not nearly as complete or accurate as that gathered by community organizations in the state.

nor did they articulate a clear political program of how the data would be used to advocate for policies to protect the tenants in the communities we work in. We asked for further clarification on how the

it is only appropriate that we willbe moved to model it as a database.

we just need to help make people more of aware of the details of doing this in the digital, as well as our physical worlds.