Figure 7.4.17.4.1\PageIndex{1}:

Conodonts

Figure 7.4.1

vessels of dinosaurs, from which proteins have been isolated and evidence for DNA fragments have been discovered [27].

natural selection

Several prominent ash beds found in North America, including three Yellowstone eruptions

estimated the Earth is 98 million years old,

daughter isotope and the original element is called the parent isotope.

angular unconformity.

igneous intrusions

strata

timing

Pangea started breaking up (in a region that would become eastern Canada and United States) around 210 million years ago in the Late Triassic

Laurentia

Eventually, as oxygen continued to be made, absorption of oxygen in mineral precipitation leveled off, and dissolved oxygen gas started filling the oceans and eventually bubbling out into the atmosphere.

One hypothesis is that life arose from the chemical environment of the Earth’s early atmosphere and oceans, which was very different than today.

partially molten surface, volcanism, and asteroid impacts.

upiter’s gravity

The planets continued to grow over the course of many thousands or millions of years, as material from the protoplanetary disc was added

supernova

Doppler effect

big-bang theory

In a classic case of science denial, beginning in the 1960s and for the next three decades, the tobacco industry and their scientists used rhetorical arguments to deny a connection between tobacco usage and cancer. Once it became clear scientific studies overwhelmingly found that using tobacco dramatically increased a person’s likelihood of getting cancer, their next strategy was to create a sense of doubt about the science. The tobacco industry suggested the results were not yet fully understood and more study was needed. T

Linking human activity to climate change.

Science denial happens when people argue that established scientific theories are wrong, not based on scientific merit but rather on subjective ideology—such as for social, political, or economic reasons.

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Paleozoic means ancient life, and organisms of this era included invertebrate animals, fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The Mesozoic (middle life) is popularly known as the Age of Reptiles and is characterized by the abundance of dinosaurs, many of which evolved into birds.

plit apart on an underlying mobile layer called the asthenosphere

Resource extraction and usage impact our environment, which can negatively affect human health. For example, burning fossil fuels releases chemicals into the air that are unhealthy for humans, especially children. Mining activities can release toxic heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, into the soil and waterways. Our choices will have an effect on Earth’s environment for the foreseeable future. Understanding the remaining quantity, extractability, and renewability of geologic resources will help us better sustainably manage those resources.

thought rocks and landforms were formed by great catastrophic events

the theory of plate tectonics and continental drift

Galileo is regarded as the first modern scientist because he conducted experiments that would prove or disprove falsifiable ideas and based his conclusions on mathematical analysis of quantifiable evidence

Renaissance scholars such as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed an alternative explanation for the perceived movement of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Sometime between 1507 and 1515, he provided credible mathematical proof for a radically new model of the cosmos, one in which the Earth and other planets orbited around a centrally located Sun. After the invention of the telescope in 1608, scientists used their enhanced astronomical observations to support this heliocentric, Sun-centered, model [16; 17].

Scientific thinkers of medieval time had such high regard for Aristotle’s wisdom and knowledge they faithfully followed his logical approach to understanding nature for centuries.

This data is interpreted to determine whether it contradicts or supports the hypothesis, which may be revised and tested again. When a hypothesis holds up under experimentation, it is ready to be shared with other experts in the field.

dern science is based on the scientific method

The theory of evolution by natural selection is another example. Originating from the work of Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century, the theory of evolution has withstood generations of scientific testing for falsifiability.

way scientists avoid bias is by using quantitative over qualitative measurements whenever possible.

Astrology is an example of pseudoscience. It is a belief system that attributes the movement of celestial bodies to influencing human behavior. Astrologers rely on celestial observations, but their conclusions are not based on experimental evidence and their statements are not falsifiable. This is not to be confused with astronomy which is the scientific study of celestial bodies and the cosmos [2,3]

Humans are biased by nature, so they cannot be completely objective;