The same vein closes up again on its own,without application of remedy of any sort. If this happened in a woman, Icertainly, like any other physician, would declare confidently that her men-struation is coming out that way

n these two stories the association of hemorrhoids and menstruationis quite clear

the superfluous excrements of theblood, which could not be dispersed through urination, sweating, or in-sensible perspiration, run to the testes by way of the seminal vessels andreach the neck of the bladder, to be finally evacuated through the urinarychannel.

To his mind, somehow, both appear tobe menstruating bodies

Theanalogy between this hemorrhoidal flow and female menstruation is soself-evident, in Vesalius’s eyes, that he applies the observations gatheredfrom the dissection of this male corpse to throw light on a problem con-cerning the anatomy of menstruation.

Storer maintained correspondence with Newton from Maryland, where hewas a planter slave-owner at Prince Frederick in Calvert County

All this mate-rial was used in Principia.

News of these episodes reached the Royal Society via London merchants in spring1684

The strange tidal patterns were confirmed in 1683 by an East India captainRobert Knox

Wallis reported his chats with “some inhabitants of Romney Marsh”, whosetestimony he eventually accepted because their business so depended on tidal flood-ing

Newton faced characteristic troubles of trust in travellers’ tales

The problem was thus to judge select reporters’ diligent accuracy incomparison with large data collections, especially where the programme demandedexquisite exactitude from resources globally distributed in time and space

hey faced the problems of handling widely distributeddata accumulated by astronomers and priests, academicians and mariners.

Royal Africa Company, founded in 1660 and reformed in 1672, was described bythe eloquent historian Thomas Sprat as the “twin” of the Royal Society

Alchemy provides a good case of the links between professedsolitude and ingenious commerce, since without global supply chains alchemicallabour would lack its materials.

Horizons has a lot to say about the politics of science, but little to say about the epistemology of science

But the other explanations are barely mentioned here

He bounced around intellectually as well, translating Arabic works into Latin while he was in Rome and introducing European clocks to a new observatory in Istanbul.

Disorder-specific predictive classification of adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) relative to autism using structural magnetic resonance imaging

wenty-nine adolescent ADHD boys and 29 age-matched healthy and 19 boys with ASD were scanned.

Dynamical properties of elemental metabolism distinguish attention deficit hyperactivity disorder from autism spectrum disorder

Association of Cord Plasma Biomarkers of In Utero Acetaminophen Exposure With Risk of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Childhood

Progress and roadblocks in the search for brain-based biomarkers of autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Saliva MicroRNA Differentiates Children With Autism From Peers With Typical and Atypical Development

low-functioning autistic children w

All the selected participants were right-handed male.

Estimation of biomarkers for autism and its co-morbidities using resting state EEG

orty-four predominantly medication-naïve male adolescents with ADHD, 19 medication-naïve male adoles-cents with ASD and 33 age-matched healthy male controls

Disorder-specific grey matter deficits in attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder relative to autismspectrum disorder

Electroencephalography (EEG) power represents amount of activity in certain frequency bands of the signal while coherence between different electrodes reflects the degree to which connections are present across brain regions [

Do patterns of synaptic pruningunderlie psychoses, autism andADHD?

Biomarker-Guided Interventions of ClinicallyRelevant Conditions Associated with AutismSpectrum Disorders and Attention DeficitHyperactivity Disorder

24 8-month-oldinfants from an American-English language

32full-term infants, assigned randomly to one of two groups: 16(eight boys) to the Mandarin exposure group and 16 (eight boys)to the English control group

One group of 8–10-month-old children (7 females and 5 males, ranging in age from 8 months, 3 days, to 9 months, 10 days, with an average age of 8 months, 20 days) was tested on the Hindi contrast. A second group of 9 females and 5 males (ranging in age from 8 months to 9 months, 12 days with an average age of 8 months, 18 days) was tested on the Salish contrast. (An additional 3 infants were dropped from further analysis for failing to reach for failing to reach criterion on /ba/-/da/.) One 10–12 month-old group (5 females and 5 males, ranging in age from 10 months, 2 days, to 11 months, 15 days, with an average age of 10 months, 20 days) was tested on the Hindi contrast. A second group of 5 males and 5 females (ranging in age from 10 months, 2 days to 12 months, 4 days, with an average of 10 months, 29 days) was tested on the Salish contrast. (Data from 12 infants aged 10–12 months had to be discarded because they failed to reach criterion on the /ba/-/da/ contrast).

42 children (later grouped as from "welfare," "working," and "professional" families),

Sixty-three mothers and children were drawnfrom two socioeconomic strata.

We eventually found two sets of corpora, in twolanguages (Hebrew and English; see Table 1

Qualifying families were invited tojoin the study if the child was not regularly exposed to alanguage other than English

eported ethnicity of participants was non-HispanicWhite (66%), Asian (13%), Alaskan Native/AmericanIndian (10%), Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (6%), orAfrican American (4%).

48 English-learning children (26females), recruited through birth records and day carecenters at Site 1 (n = 20) and Site 2 (n = 28).

One possibility isthat infants with greater exposure to learning materials and opportunities in theirhome environments may develop stronger language skills. Alternatively, more linguisti-cally advanced infants may engender richer home language environments and/or inter-actions

Because the home environment was only assessed at15 months, we were unable to directly test this possible interpretation

Seventy-five full-term infants (27 male) were enrolled at 9 month

discriminate betweentwo perceptually similar sounds, retroflex alveolar stop [ɖ] and dental alveolar stop [ḓ],two phonemes that are common in the Hindi language but that are indistinguishableto native English speakers.

ingleparticipating clinic site in Sioux Falls, South Dakota

English was the only languagespoken in the home

association persisted when controlling for 9-month expressive languageabilities, rendering it less likely that infants with better expressive language skills weresimply engendering higher quality home interaction

All ofwhich shows that 'This piece of copper, at such and such times and places, fails toexpand when heated' however well-corroborated, cannot on its own, conclusivelyrefute 'All bits of copper expand when heated'

t. That this might be a legitimate decision, in these circumstances, indicatesthat the singular statement 'This piece of copper, for a time, fails to expand whenheated' cannot, however well-corroborated, in itself conclusively refute 'All bitsof copper expand when heated'

, 'At all times, and in all places, this piece of copper fails to expand whenheated'

In this case, if all hypotheses areequally improbable, why not regard the conglomeration of theories as refutingthe experimental hypotheses, instead of the other way round? If all that we have istwo sets of hypotheses that contradict each other, we can have no reason for pre-ferring the conjecture that error has been detected in one set rather than in the otherset.

uxiliary hypotheses, that have been developed subsequently, considerably increasethe empirical content of the theory

. In general it will not be in our interests to reject atheory that, in the past, has had considerable empirical success until there is analternative more promising theory on the horizon

the new theory may solve severe outstanding problems, and thus promise to lead toa theory which in the end explains all that the old theories explained, and muchmore beside

e. In certain circumstances it will be in our interests to accept anew theory which initially has far less empirical content than its predecessors,precisely because the new theory promises, with development, with the additionperhaps of auxiliary hypotheses, to lead to a theory of far greater empirical contentthan its predecesso

. It may well be against our interests to test severely, and per-haps eliminate, a promising theory which has not been allowed to come to fullfruition

But more generally, it is due to the factthat in order to refute with certainty any scientific theory we must establish withcertainty the truth of some falsifying hypothesis-and, this, we may take it, cannotbe don

Although we seek theories with ahigh degree of corroboration, as scientists we do not seek highly probable theories but explanations

because the falsified theories are known or believed to be false,while the non-falsified theories may still be true.

the justification for this is the purely logical relationship of deducibility whichallows us to assert the falsity of universal statements if we accept the truth of singular ones.

Not everybody is able to do this; but there is no other way

. One can say first that the jump is not from anobservation statement, but from a problem-situation, and that the theory must allow us to explain theobservations which created the problem

it is accepted; if it does not, it is rejected. But it isnever inferred, in any sense, from the empirical evidence.

which is to say that all laws andtheories are conjectures, or tentative hypotheses

Induction, i.e. inference based on many observations, is a myth. It is neither apsychological fact, nor a fact of ordinary life, nor one of scientific procedure.

They believed (to put it in my own terminology) that onlythe inductive method could provide a satisfactory criterion of demarcation

The difference lies not somuch in the trials as in a critical and constructive attitude towards errors; errors which the scientistconsciously and cautiously tries to uncover in order to refute his theories with searching arguments,including appeals to the most severe experimental tests which his theories and his ingenuity permithim to design

From the point of view here developed all laws, all theories, remain essentially tentative, orconjectural, or hypothetical, even when we feel unable to doubt them any longer.

If we have made this our task, then there is no more rational procedurethan the method of trial and error--of conjecture and refutation

then Hume was wrong.

e only by purely deductive reasoning is it possible for us todiscover what our theories imply, and thus to criticize them effectively

Thedemand for rational proofs in science indicates a failure to keep distinct the broad realm ofrationality and the narrow realm of rational certainty: it is an untenable, an unreasonable demand.

Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a criticalattitude towards them

A critical attitude needs for its raw material, as itwere, theories or beliefs which are held more or less dogmatically.

ncreasing experience and maturity sometimes create an attitude ofcaution and criticism rather than of dogmatism

Moreover, this dogmatism allows us to approach a good theory instages, by way of approximations: if we accept defeat too easily, we may prevent ourselves fromfinding that we were very nearly right.

Thus we are born with expectations; with 'knowledge' which, although not valid a priori, ispsychologically or genetically a priori, i.e. prior to all observational experience. One of the mostimportant of these expectations is the expectation of finding a regularity. It is connected with aninborn propensity to look out for regularities, or with a need to find regularities, as we may see fromthe pleasure of the child who satisfies this need

It is quite true that any particular hypothesiswe choose will have been preceded by observations--the observations, for example, which it isdesigned to explain. But these observations, in their turn, presupposed the adoption of a frame ofreference: a frame of expectations: a frame of theorie

I thought that it would apply inthe field of science also; that scientific theories were not the digest of observations, but that theywere inventions--conjectures boldly put forward for trial, to be eliminated if they clashed withobservations; with observations which were rarely accidental but as a rule undertaken with thedefinite intention of testing a theory by obtaining, if possible, a decisive refutation

Without waiting, passively, for repetitions to impress or impose regularitiesupon us, we actively try to impose regularities upon the world

Thus they are repetitions only from acertain point of view

(a) the typical result of repetition; (b) the genesis of habits; andespecially (c) the character of those experiences or modes of behaviour which may be described as'believing in a law' or 'expecting a law-like succession of events'.

He held that there can be no valid logical 9 9arguments allowing us to establish 'that those instances, of which we have had no experience,resemble those, of which we have had experience

There can never be anything like a completely safe observation, free fromthe dangers of misinterpretatio

In fact Newton's theory of gravity, and especially the lunar theory ofthe tides, was historically speaking an offspring of astrological lore

This does notmean that Freud and Adler were not seeing certain things correctly

It is a typical soothsayer's trick to predict things so vaguely that thepredictions can hardly fail: that they become irrefutable

The theory is incompatible with certain possible results ofobservation

Onceyour eyes were thus opened you saw confirming instances everywhere: the world was full ofverifications of the theory. Whatever happened always confirmed i

What I had in mind was that his previous observations may not have been much sounder than thisnew one; that each in its turn had been interpreted in the light of 'previous experience', and at thesame time counted as additional confirmation

The lattermethod may be exemplified by astrology, with its stupendous mass of empirical evidence based onobservation--on horoscopes and on biographies.