As a college student, you may be asked to begin research papers with a synthesis of the sources.  Your primary purpose is to show readers that you are familiar with the field and are qualified to offer your own opinions.  But your larger purpose is to show that in spite of all this wonderful research, no one has addressed the problem in the way that you intend to in your paper.  This gives your synthesis a purpose and even a thesis of sorts. Because each discipline has specific rules and expectations, you should consult your professor or a guidebook for that specific discipline if you are asked to write a review of the literature and aren’t sure how to do it.

In contrast, a thesis-driven synthesis not only combines information from multiple sources, but also uses that information to support a central claim or argument. Here, you evaluate and interpret the sources to develop your own perspective or theory about the topic.

A synthesis can serve different purposes, depending on the assignment. In a background synthesis, your goal is to collect and organize information from various sources by topic or theme, presenting an overview of what is known about a subject. This type does not require an argument or thesis—it simply helps readers understand the current state of research or information.

(1)  Accurately reports information from the sources using different phrases and sentences; (2)  Organized in such a way that readers can immediately see where the information from the sources overlap;. (3)  Makes sense of the sources and helps the reader understand them in greater depth.

The basic research report (described below as a background synthesis) is a common document in the business world.  Whether one is proposing to open a new store or expand a product line, the report will synthesize information and arrange it by topic rather than by source.  Whether you want to present information on child rearing to a new mother, or details about your town to a new resident, you’ll find yourself synthesizing too. And just as in college, the quality and usefulness of your synthesis will depend on your accuracy and organization.

Whenever you report to a friend about a film or podcast, you engage in synthesis.  People synthesize information naturally to help other see the connections between things they learn;  for example, you have probably stored up a mental data bank of the various descriptions you’ve heard about particular professors. If your data bank contains several positive descriptions, you might synthesize that information and use it to enroll in a class from that professor.  Synthesis is related to but not the same as classification, division, or comparison and contrast.  Instead of attending to categories or finding similarities and differences, synthesizing sources is a matter of pulling them together into some kind of harmony. Synthesis searches for links between materials for the purpose of constructing a thesis or theory.

At its most basic level, a synthesis involves combining two or more summaries, but synthesis writing is more difficult than it might at first appear because this combining must be done in a meaningful way, and the final essay must generally be thesis-driven.  In composition courses, “synthesis” commonly refers to writing about printed texts, drawing together particular themes or traits that you observe in those texts, organizing the material from each text according to those themes or traits, and developing your own thesis or theory.  Sometimes, you may be asked to synthesize your own ideas with those of the texts you have been assigned. In your other college classes, you’ll probably find yourself synthesizing information from graphs and tables, pieces of music, and artworks as well.

When you finalize your conclusion, make sure your text is not too repetitive. While your goal is to reintroduce your argument, you don’t want to bore the reader with the exact same sentences you included in your introduction; instead, reiterate your thesis using your new perspective of the topic.

Reintroduce the argument introduced in your thesis statement. Reiterate the key points of your research. Offer some forecasts for the future (example: “Hopefully now with a clearer understanding about free soloing and the rock-climbing community, others might understand the draw to such a seemingly risky sport…”).

The conclusion is your opportunity to summarize the essay and hopefully spur the reader to want to learn more about the topic. Be sure to clearly reiterate the thesis statement. In your introduction, you may have laid out what would be covered in the essay. Offer a sentence or two reiterating what was learned about those topic areas. Finally, work to avoid adding any new information and questions in this final section of your writing.

Begin with a topic sentence. Using one of the five Ws or H questions here will remind you and your readers what you will focus on in this paragraph. Introduce your sources in a sentence or two to summarize what the information revealed about your topic. Include a direct quote using P.I.E. and reflect on what the source illuminated about your question.

The main purpose of the body paragraphs is to inform the target audience about the background/significance of your topic or the answers to the 5 Ws and H driving questions that you focused your research on. Share some interesting facts, go into the possibly unknown details, or reflect common knowledge in a new light to make readers intrigued. Body paragraphs should discuss the inquiry process you followed to research your topic

Define the topic. Provide short background information. Introduce who your intended audience is. State what your driving research question is. Create a thesis statement by identifying the scope of the informative essay (the main point you want your audience to understand about your topic).

Then, introduce the topic with its background in a couple of sentences. The writer will then end the paragraph with a powerful thesis statement, which points to the necessity of topic research. The writer’s goal is to do everything possible to lure the audience’s interest in the initial paragraph.

The initial stage is an introduction, which should start with the sound hook sentence to engage the reader in what a writer plans to share. One example is: “A community is generally defined by people in a group who live together in a particular area, or a group of people who are considered a unit because of their shared interests or background.”

Some events and trends are too recent to appear in Tier One sources, which tend to be highly specific, and sometimes you need a more general perspective on a topic. Thus, Tier Two sources can provide quality information that is more accessible to non-academics. There are three main categories. First, official reports from government agencies or major international institutions like the World Bank or the United Nations; these institutions generally have research departments staffed with qualified experts who seek to provide rigorous, even-handed information to decision-makers. Second, feature articles from major newspapers and magazines like the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, London Times, or The Economist are based on original reporting by experienced journalists (not press releases) and are typically 1500+ words in length. Third, there are some great books from non-academic presses that cite their sources; they’re often written by journalists. All three of these sources are generally well researched descriptions of an event or state of the world, undertaken by credentialed experts who generally seek to be even-handed.

These are sources from the mainstream academic literature: books and scholarly articles. Academic books generally fall into three categories: (1) textbooks written with students in mind, (2) monographs which give an extended report on a large research project, and (3) edited-volumes in which each chapter is authored by different people. Scholarly articles appear in academic journals, which are published multiple times a year in order to share the latest research findings with scholars in the field. They’re usually sponsored by some academic society. To get published, these articles and books had to earn favorable anonymous evaluations by qualified scholars.

The Informative Research Report draws primarily from resources found in tiers 1 and 2, according to the research table in Writing in College:

Table: Research Source Tiers from Writing in College

Students should have a clearer idea of their research topic and can begin exploring common challenges to finding relevant sources and managing them (recording citation details, quoting, paraphrasing, citing

Now that you have spent time considering different aspects of your topic in your exploratory essay, you will continue your research through our CNM library resources to help inform a larger audience about your topic

The point of an informative essay is not to convince others to take a certain action or stance; that role is expressly reserved for persuasive essays. Instead, the main objective is to highlight specific information about your topic. In this project, you may be asking “after researching general aspects about my topic, what do I want others to understand about it?” Of course, if your informative essay is interesting enough, it may move readers to learn more about the subject, but they’ll have to come to that on their own, thanks to the wealth of interesting information you present.

The Five W’s and How, Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. The purpose of an informative essay, sometimes called an expository essay, is to educate others on a certain topic. Typically, these essays aim to answer the five Ws and H questions: who, what, where, when, why, and how. For this essay, you will focus on one or two driving questions about your topic, which will drive your research and help you reach a conclusion. The question can be one that emerged from your Exploratory Essay or it can be a brand-new question about your topic that you are interested in researching.

Sometimes students are asked to write an informative research report, which is a different type of document than the exploratory essay, which we will cover in the next chapter. The Informative Research Report is a report that relays the results of a central research question in an organized manner through more formal sources. These resources could include Google Scholar, library catalogs and academic article databases, websites of relevant agencies, and Google searches using (site: *.gov or site: *.org). A report is written from the perspective of someone who is seeking to find specific and in-depth information about a certain aspect of a topic.

Who is not paying the teachers enough? What is considered “enough”? What is the problem? What are the results?

Replace any linking verbs with action verbs. Linking verbs are forms of the verb to be, a verb that simply states that a situation exists.

Animated graphic illustrating the development of a thesis statement, emphasizing the central argument or main point of an essay or paper. The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By replacing those general words, like people and work hard, the writer can better focus his or her research and gain more direction in his or her writing.

Ways to Revise Your Thesis Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement, an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing. Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper. The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement. You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps: Pinpoint and replace all non-specific words, such as people, everything, society, or life, with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.

A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health-care coverage, then your precise thesis statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause i

Specificity A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health-care coverage.

Here are a few tips that will help you during the peer review process: Begin by reading the assignment instructions. Your instructor will likely have clear goals for the peer review process, and following the instructions will help you provide significant and meaningful revision ideas for your peer. Read your peer’s essay from the beginning to the end without adding any comments. This first read allows you to grasp your peer’s intentions and focus. Complete a second reading of your peer’s draft and start looking for strengths and weaknesses. Make comments on the margins of your peer’s essay. Later, you can further expand on these comments when you complete the peer review form. Stop when you feel stuck and ask yourself, “If this were my paper, how would I revise it?” Set aside time to review the organization of your peer’s essay. Read their thesis statement and make sure their body paragraphs have topic sentences that connect to their thesis statement. If there isn’t a clear connection, consider helping your peer revise their topic sentence so the connection between the thesis and body paragraph is easy to understand. Be honest. Your peers want to earn the best grade they can, and your advice during peer review will help them achieve this goal. Think of every piece of advice as constructive criticism. Your advice will help them to create a stronger, more focused writing sample. The peer review process has the potential to help you create a much stronger and more focused essay. Try to be open to the process and give honest and thoughtful critiques. Adapted from “Chapter Eight” of Writers’ Handbook, 2012, used according to Creative Commons 3.0 CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 , and “Chapter Seven” of English for Business Success, 2012, used according to Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA 3.0                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Student Guidelines for Effective Feedback from Write the World     Previous/next navigation Previous: Chapter 12: Revising

When you receive differing feedback you should evaluate the responses you receive according to two important criteria: Determine if the feedback supports the purpose of the assignment. Determine if the suggested revisions are appropriate to the audience. Then, using these standards, accept or reject revision feedback as you work to finalize your paper. The following matching activity will provide you with revision advice you can implement into your own writing process. Click on the cards and match the images. Each match will reveal advice provided by CNM writing instructors. Good luck!

Ultimately the changes you make to your essay are up to you since it is not necessary to incorporate every recommendation you receive. However, if you start to observe a pattern in the responses you receive from peer reviewers, you might want to take that feedback into consideration in future assignments. For example, if you read consistent comments about a need for more research, then you may want to consider including more research in future assignments.

Using Feedback from Multiple Sources You might receive feedback from more than one reader as you share different stages of your revised draft. In this situation, you may receive feedback from readers who do not understand the assignment or who lack your involvement with and enthusiasm for it. These differing opinions most commonly occur when students ask people outside the classroom to review their writing. While the advice from different readers can be great, you should always value the feedback you receive from your classmates because they have participated in the class discussions, are familiar with your instructor’s expectations, and have often completed the same reading assignments as you.

The purpose of peer feedback is to receive constructive criticism of your essay. Your peer reviewer is your first real audience, and you have the opportunity to learn what confuses and delights a reader so that you can improve your work before sharing the final draft with a wider audience (or your intended audience).

Lastly, thanking your classmates for feedback is a gracious way to acknowledge that your classmates attempted to complete the assignment and took the time and care to read and comment on your writing.

If two or several of your classmates make the same comment about your writing, the likely answer to that question is yes. If your teacher or a tutor has in the past commented on the same point, again the answer is yes. If the feedback is specific to the questions that your instructor asked, the answer is also yes.

void the “Ugly Baby Syndrome” that some writing teachers talk about. Someone who gives you constructive criticism on your writing may come across as someone who is calling your baby ugly. Perhaps your baby just needs a haircut. Or maybe your baby needs a diaper change. Your baby is still your creation, and you have opportunities to make your ideas shine. Fortunately, you can improve your writing, which takes us to the next point. Should you change your writing?

Receiving Peer Feedback When receiving peer feedback, remember that your classmates are being asked to perform a task and that they, just like you, are just trying to perform the task the teacher asked them to perform. With repeated practice you and your classmates will get better and better at giving each other peer review. Some of your classmates will give you great feedback and others might not have actually read your paper so their feedback might not be useful to you.

What the writer did well What needs improvement What the next steps are

Giving Feedback When giving feedback, try to answer your instructor’s questions, but of course, you should carefully read your classmates’ writing first. For example, if you are supposed to identify the main idea of your classmate’s writing, be sure to look for the main idea. If you can’t find it, say, “I looked but couldn’t find it”, instead of “You didn’t include one.” Both may mean the same thing, but the former sounds less aggressive and accusatory, and the reason for that is that you state that you as the reader tried to accomplish the given task of finding the thesis statement.

a final draft that fits the audience and the purpose. Peer feedback activities have an educational purpose which is putting the writer into the position of the reader and with this switch, reflecting on and improving one’s own writing. You and your peers have all the tools to offer advice since you have been working together, in the classroom, to understand the essay’s topic and genre. Maintaining a positive attitude when providing feedback will put you and your partner at ease. The sample peer review below provides a useful framework for the peer review process.

Peer review can feel scary because you may feel uncomfortable sharing your writing at first, but remember that each writer is working toward the same goal:

The in-class (and sometimes online) peer review process provides writers with the opportunity to share their drafts with someone who can give an honest response about its strengths and weaknesses. Since your peers have participated in the same lectures, discussions, and group work, they can offer the most constructive and focused feedback based on the assignment and the instructor’s expectations.

After working so closely with a piece of writing, writers often need to step back and ask for advice from a more objective reader. The textbook English for Business Success explains that what writers need most is feedback from readers who can respond to both the words on the page and critique whether the writing responds to the assignment; this process is called peer review

Editing and proofreading can work well with a partner. You can offer to be another pair of eyes for peers in exchange for them doing the same for you. Whether you are editing and proofreading your work or the work of a peer, the process is basically the same. Although the rest of this section assumes you are editing and proofreading your work, you can simply shift the personal issues, such as “Am I…” to a viewpoint that will work with a peer, such as “Is she…”

Although you might think editing and proofreading aren’t necessary since you were fairly careful when you were writing, the truth is that even the brightest people and best writers make mistakes when they write. One of the main reasons that you are likely to make mistakes is that your mind and fingers are not always moving along at the same speed nor are they necessarily in sync. So what ends up on the page isn’t always exactly what you intended. A second reason is that, as you make changes and adjustments, you might not totally match up the original parts and revised parts. Finally, a third key reason for proofreading is because you likely have errors you typically make and proofreading gives you a chance to correct those errors.

However, you should plan to read through the entire final draft at least one additional time. During this stage of editing and proofreading your entire essay, you should be looking for general consistency and clarity. Also, pay particular attention to parts of the paper you have moved around or changed in other ways to make sure that your new versions still work smoothly.

In addition to revising, you will also want to go back to your paper one more time to proofread, which will prepare you for the peer review process.

Communication on Public Discussion Boards Whenever you are being asked to communicate or post in a discussion forum or other communication mode, you need to ask yourself if there will be one recipient or several. In other words, who will be your readers? Is the forum private so that only your instructor or only a group of classmates or only a specific classmate can see it or is it public so that everyone, all of your classmates and your instructor can see your post? Check the forum to which you are posting for these settings. The discussion board is a public forum, so you might have a broad audience. Create a post according to the recipient(s). It is nice to address a classmate by name if you are responding to a specific person in a discussion forum. Online classes can be a solitary experience, so it can be nice when a classmate is actually responding to you, personally. It is also advisable to use a greeting such as “Classmates” if you are addressing a discussion post to everyone in the class. Most of the time, discussions tend to be public, so you can make sure of the assignment’s settings before you post. Do’s: Discussions usually have specific guidelines for posts. Most require you to use college English and write in complete sentences. This chapter from CNM’s grammar OER covers appropriate language. Essentially, you should avoid text language, capitalize “I”, and check your spelling, grammar, and punctuation before submitting your posts. Sometimes there are specific questions and a certain number of sentences required, so read the instructions closely. Avoid short posts, such as “I agree” because it is too general and doesn’t encourage ongoing discussion; instead, explain what you agree with and why. Often, there is a reading that needs to be completed before you post. Make sure you read the required text before posting instead of just “winging it” because your classmates and teacher can tell. Don’ts: Avoid copying and pasting your own post to respond to several of your classmates. Your instructor, who will be viewing and grading your posts, can tell that your posts are identical and is unlikely to give you full credit for identical posts. Second, avoid copying and pasting your classmates’ posts to present as your own. There is a timestamp on your posts in an online classroom, and your instructor will have physical evidence of who posted a response first. Also, your classmates and instructor will notice your copied post, and you will be guilty of plagiarism. Last, do not post unrelated ideas; for example, if you are asked about the main idea of a text you read, make sure to read the text, and respond by giving what you think is the main idea, not by posting that you liked the text because of a personal experience you had. It isn’t wrong to include personal content, but be sure to answer the instructor’s questions first to earn full credit. Communicating in a college classroom with multiple audiences can be complex, but these tips will help you create respectful and thoughtful messages.

Sample Email to an Instructor Subject: English 1110 Section 102: Absence Dear/Hello Professor [Last name], l was unable to attend class today, so I wanted to ask if there are any handouts or additional assignments I should complete before we meet on Thursday? I did review the syllabus and course outline, and I will complete the quiz and reading homework listed there. Many thanks, [First name] [Last name]

Creating an appropriate tone can feel overwhelming. We know that all emails should be polite, and emails to your instructor may be more formal or professional. Not all Instructors will expect formal emails, but it’s important to remember that your instructor is not your friend and that an email or message is not a text message. It is not appropriate to send an informal or colloquial message and to assume your instructor is your friend or acquaintance and that an email or message is the same as text message.

Tips for Emailing Your Instructor Be polite: Address your professor formally, using the title “Professor” or “Instructor” with their last name. Depending on how formal your professor seems, use a salutation (“Dear” or “Hello” followed by your professor’s name/title (Dr. XYZ, Professor XYZ, etc.) Pose a question. Clearly introduce the purpose of your email and the information you are requesting. If you are not asking a specific question, be aware that you may not receive a response to your email. Be concise. Instructors are busy people, and although they are typically more than happy to help you, kindly get to your point quickly. Sign off with your first and last name, the course number, and the class time. This will make it easy for your professor to identify you. Do not ask, “When will you return our papers?” If you MUST ask, make it specific and realistic (e.g., “Will we get our papers back by the end of next week?”). Most Instructors teach multiple classes and could have hundreds of assignments to grade. Do not ask your Instructor if you missed anything important when you were absent. Instructors work diligently to design their coursework, so asking if any of that content was important can be considered rude or dismissive of their hard work. Instead ask if missed anything that was not included on the course schedule.

Avoid sending harsh or demanding emails or messages when you are panicked, frustrated, or angry. Walk away from your computer and return at a later time when you feel calmer. Then re-read the instructions, or syllabus, or the course materials you find confusing, and if you still cannot find the answer because it is not there, definitely email or message your instructor.

On the other hand, avoid monopolizing your teacher’s email inbox with dozens of emails and messages per week and expecting her to respond immediately. Nobody enjoys having their inbox blown up with multiple messages by the same person. Try to remember your instructor will likely have many other emails from administrators, staff, and other students.

Email or message An email or message sent to your instructor is often the result of a question you may have. Many students think contacting their instructor shows that they weren’t paying attention or that they are the only student did not understand something, so they often keep quiet and go on trying to do work that they do not understand. Other students think that their teacher is their own private tutor, so they email or message the teacher several times a day to ask questions that likely have answers in the syllabus and in the learning module instructions. Both of these behaviors are unhelpful and frustrating to the students and the instructor.

Communicating in a College Course Communication courses teach students that communication involves two parties—the sender and the receiver of the communicated message. Sometimes, there is more than one sender and often, there is more than one receiver of the message. The main purpose of communication whether it be email, text, tweet, blog, discussion, presentation, written assignment, or speech is always to help the receiver(s) of the message understand the idea that the sender of the message is trying to share. This section will focus on electronic communication in a college course.

Writing in drafts makes academic work more manageable. Drafting gets your ideas onto paper, which gives you more to work with than the perfectionist’s daunting blank screen. You can always return later to fix the problems that bother you.

Student-Led Workshops Some courses encourage students to share their research and writing with each other, and even offer workshops where students can present their own writing and offer constructive comments to their classmates. Independent paper-writing workshops provide a space for peers with varying interests, work styles, and areas of expertise to brainstorm

Tutoring Center CNM students have access to The Learning and Computer Center (TLCc), which is available on six campuses: Advanced Technology Center, Main, Montoya, Rio Rancho, South Valley, and Westside. At these writing centers, trained tutors help students meet college-level expectations. The tutoring centers offer one-on-one meetings, online, and group sessions for multiple disciplines. TLCc also offers workshops on citing and learning how to develop a writing process.

Many students feel intimidated asking for help with academic writing; after all, it’s something you’ve been doing your entire life in school. However, there’s no need to feel like it’s a sign of your lack of ability; on the contrary, many of the strongest student writers regularly seek help and support with their writing (that’s why they’re so strong). College instructors are familiar with the ups and downs of writing, and most colleges have support systems in place to help students learn how to write for an academic audience. The following sections discuss common on-campus writing services, what to expect from them, and how they can help you.

Seeking Help Meeting College Expectations Depending on your education before coming to CNM, you will have varied writing experiences as compared with other students in class. Some students might have earned a GED, some might be returning to school after a decades-long break, and still other students might either be graduating high school, or be freshly graduated. If the latter is the case, you might enter college with a wealth of experience writing five-paragraph essays, book reports, and lab reports. Even the best students, however, need to make big adjustments to learn the conventions of academic writing. College-level writing obeys different rules, and learning them will help you hone your writing skills. Think of it as ascending another step up the writing ladder.

Infographic comparing various aspects of high school and college, adapted from “Chapter One” of Successful Writing, 2012, used according to Creative Commons 3.0 cc-by-nc-sa.

The quality of the work you do also changes. It is not enough to understand course material and summarize it on an exam. You will also be expected to seriously engage with new ideas by reflecting on them, analyzing them, critiquing them, making connections, drawing conclusions, or finding new ways of thinking about a given subject. Educationally, you are moving into deeper waters. A good introductory writing course will help you swim.

In college, academic expectations change from what you may have experienced in high school. The quantity of work you are expected to complete increases. When instructors expect you to read pages upon pages or study hours and hours for one particular course, managing your workload can be challenging. This chapter includes strategies for studying efficiently and managing your time

It can be difficult to feel excited about an intro writing course when you are eager to begin the coursework in your major (and if you are an English major, let your teacher know so you can talk about your future education plans). Regardless of your field of study, honing your writing skills—plus your reading and critical-thinking skills—will help you build a solid academic foundation.

As you begin this chapter, you may wonder why you need an introduction. After all, you have been writing and reading since elementary school. You completed numerous assessments of your reading and writing skills in high school and as part of your application process for college. You may write on the job, too. Why is a college writing course even necessary?

This textbook will cover ways to communicate effectively as you develop insight into your own style, writing process, grammatical choices, and rhetorical situations. With these skills, you should be able to improve your writing talent regardless of the discipline you enter after completing this course. Knowing your rhetorical situation, or the circumstances under which you communicate, and knowing which tone, style, and genre will most effectively persuade your audience, will help you regardless of whether you are enrolling in history, biology, theater, or music next semester–because when you get to college, you write in every discipline. To help launch our introduction this chapter includes a section from the open access textbook Successful Writing.

Throughout this text, the writers–all CNM English faculty, some of whom are still paying back student loans–are the we who compiled this textbook. We did so because we believe that a college education should be engaging, enlightening, informative, life-affirming, worldview-upturning and affordable. We believe it shouldn’t cost money to learn how to write, and that is why we are making this book available to you. This project also would not have happened without the support of CNM’s OER initiative and Liberal Arts administration.

In this textbook, we’ll cover the conventions of writing, and we’ll also cover some of the resources available to you as a CNM student. And since this book is free and available on the internet, you can keep it…forever!

This textbook is an Open Educational Resource (OER) text, which means it was created using free and available sources on the Internet, namely eight different open access books. Our compiled textbook will shift between free, outside writing resources and the plural first pronoun voice, or the we voice, signaling the English teachers who compiled and developed sections of the text.

CNM offers resources that can help you not only with your studies but also with managing your responsibilities as well

Composition II: English 1120 Analyze the rhetorical situation for purpose, main ideas, support, audience, and organizational strategies in a variety of genres. Employ writing processes such as planning, organizing, composing, and revising. Use a variety of research methods to gather appropriate, credible information. Evaluate sources, claims, and evidence for their relevance, credibility, and purpose. Quote, paraphrase, and summarize sources ethically, citing and documenting them appropriately. Integrate information from sources to effectively support claims and for other purposes ( to provide background information, evidence/examples, illustrate an alternative view, etc.). Use an appropriate voice ( including syntax and word choice).

The graphic below lists the outcomes for English 1110 and 1120, which will be introduced by your instructor and included in your syllabus. Course Outcomes: Composition I & II Composition I: English 1110 Analyze communication through reading and writing skills. Employ writing processes such as planning, organizing, composing, and revising. Express a primary purpose and organize supporting points logically. Use and document research evidence appropriate for college-level writing. Employ academic writing styles appropriate for different genres and audiences. Identify and correct grammatical and mechanical errors in their writing.

you may be just starting your studies at CNM, or you may have already taken this class but didn’t finish. The reality is every English 1110 and 1120 course at CNM contains a diverse range of students. If you are enrolled in English 1110 or 1120 at CNM, you are likely a resident of New Mexico (NM). You might have gone to an elementary or secondary school here. You might feel like a part of the unique culture here in NM. Wherever you started, we welcome you to CNM!

This textbook was designed for English 1110 and 1120, Composition I and Composition II, respectively. If you are enrolled in one of these courses, you may be nearing the end of your studies at Central New Mexico Community College (CNM)

For an article with no known author, use the source title in place of the author’s name, formatted as it would be (i.e., italicized or enclosed in quotation marks) in your Works Cited section.You may abbreviate the title, using only the first few words:

If you are using a website or other electronic source that does not have page numbers, use only the author’s name or title of the source in the in-text citation.   Here are examples:   If the source has page numbers: (Pauling 113).  If the source does not have page numbers: (Pauling).  If the source has page numbers: (“Bilingual Minds” 113).  If the source does not have page numbers: (“Bilingual Minds”).

Usually, the Works Cited source entry will begin with an author’s last name. If there is no author, then the name of the article is the first information listed.

The purpose of the in-text citation is to show the reader the source of the information the writer is citing. So, the information in the in-text citation needs to lead directly to the source listed in the Works Cited page

Place the in-text citation at the end of the sentence containing the information cited. Do not simply put the in-text citation at the end of a paragraph. Show the reader which sentences include source material. If all the sentences in your paragraph comes from one source, that’s your cue to start analyzing and interpreting your sources more. You can learn more about analyzing and interpreting sources in

You must cite your sources as you use them. In the same way that a table or figure should be located right next to the sentence that discusses i

In the professional world, plagiarism results in loss of credibility and often compensation, including future opportunities. In a classroom setting, plagiarism results in a range of sanctions, from loss of a grade to expulsion from a school or university. CNM outlines the consequences for academic dishonesty in its Code of Conduct. In both professional and academic settings, the penalties are severe.

If you do not credit the work of other writers –taking credit for their work as if you wrote it—you are committing plagiarism. If you do not enclose direct quotes in quotation marks or cite the source, you are committing plagiarism.

n your paper, when you quote directly from a source in their words, or when you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you need to tell the reader what that source is so the author gets credit for their words and ideas.

In your paper, when you quote directly from a source in their words, or when you paraphrase someone else’s idea, you need to tell the reader what that source is so the author gets credit for their words and ideas.

For example, the fact that mollusks live in both saltwater and freshwater is common knowledge.

This material must always be cited:  A direct quote  A statistic  An idea that is not your own  Someone else’s opinion  Concrete facts, not considered “common knowledge”  Knowledge not considered “common”

Your paper should include no more than 25% direct quotes (and many instructors will think this is too high a percentage). If you have too many direct quotes, paraphrase information from your source instead of using direct quotes. Remember: you are writing this paper. Your words should be the most prominent aspect of your paper.

When writing, make sure you inform the reader when you are using information from a source, whether that be direct quotations or paraphrasing information. And, it should be equally clear when you are expressing your own ideas.    If someone else wrote it, said it, drew it, demonstrated it, or otherwise expressed it, you need to cite it.

MLA Style: In-Text Citations by Scribbr on Youtube

The ninth edition of the MLA Style Guide states that your in-text, or parenthetical, citations should do the following: Clearly indicate the specific sources also referenced in the works cited Specifically identify the location of the information that you used Carefully create a clear and concise citation, always confirming its accuracy Check out the video below for more discussion of your in-text citations.

If you follow MLA style and indicate your source both in your essay and in the Works Cited section, you will prevent the possibility of plagiarism. If you follow MLA guidelines, pay attention to detail, and clearly indicate your sources, then this approach to formatting and citation offers a proven way to demonstrate your respect for other authors and artists.

The in-text citation is offset with parentheses, clearly calling attention to itself for the reader. The reference to the author or title is like a signal to the reader that information was incorporated from a separate source. It also provides the reader with information to then turn to the Works Cited section of the essay (at the end) where they can find the complete reference.

In-text citations are used throughout your paper to credit your sources of information. In MLA style, the in-text citation in the body of the essay links to the Works Cited page at the end. This way, the reader will know which item in the Works Cited is the source of the information.

You would also not want to search for a single instance of surgery because you might not be able to find enough information on it. Find a happy medium between a too-broad or too-specific topic to research.

After narrowing your focus, think about key search terms that will apply only to your subtopic. Develop specific questions that can be answered through your research process, but be careful not to choose a focus that is overly narrow. You should aim for a question that will limit search results to sources that relate to your topic, but will still result in a varied pool of sources to explore.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore an interesting topic. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you not only remember what you have learned, but also understand it on a deeper level.

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. Boundless Writing explains that a research paper is an expanded essay that relies on existing discourse to analyze a perspective or construct an argument. Because a research paper includes an extensive information-gathering process in addition to the writing process, it is important to develop a research plan to ensure your final paper will accomplish its goals. As a researcher, you have countless resources at your disposal, and it can be difficult to sift through each source while looking for specific information. If you begin researching without a plan, you could find yourself wasting hours reading sources that will be of little or no help to your paper. To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

You will need to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper. A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

The text Successful Writing stresses that when you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

While it is true that some young women in today’s society are more sexualized than in the past, that is not true for all girls. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions: Which teenage girls? What constitutes “too” sexualized? Why are they behaving that way? Where does this behavior show up? What are the repercussions?

Omit any general claims that are hard or impossible to support.

Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue:

Replace any linking verbs with action verbs

A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too informal for the selected audience.

Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis.

The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard.

Pinpoint and replace all non-specific words, such as people, everything, society, or life, with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.

The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper.

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay.

Examples of Weak Thesis Statements Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis: A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay. Avoid creating an announcement. Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge. A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side. Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books. A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end. Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products. A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad. Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging

Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements The societal and personal struggles of Troy Maxon in the play “Fences” symbolize the challenge of black males who lived through segregation and integration in the United States. Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet spoils the outcome for the audience and weakens the plot. J. D. Salinger’s character in Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield, is a confused rebel who voices his disgust with phonies, yet in an effort to protect himself, he acts like a phony on many occasions. Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown. Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future drug addicts. In a crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a stable, lucrative job.

Ability to be argued A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can be supported with evidence. Ability to be demonstrated For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details. Assertiveness A thesis statement that is assertive shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is authoritative and takes a stance that others might oppose. Confidence In addition to creating authority in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as “I feel” or “I believe” actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers

A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic

Specificity A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health-care coverage.

A thesis is not your paper’s topic, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to write about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful, and confident.

A thesis is generally one to two sentences long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that will be demonstrated in the body. The thesis forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.

After developing an outline, a good next step is refining your thesis statement. The textbook Successful Writing explains that writers need a thesis statement to provide a specific focus for their essay and to organize what they will discuss in the body of their writing. A thesis statement is an argumentative central claim in a paper; the entire paper is focused on demonstrating that claim as a valid perspective. Your thesis statement should be in your introduction because you must make sure that the audience is aware of your paper’s intent so that there is clarity from the outset. Consider placing the thesis toward the bottom of your introduction. This allows you a few sentences to introduce the concept and prepare the reader for your purpose.

Nevertheless, your conclusion should accurately reflect the paper’s subject and provide the reader with closure. Finally, avoid ending a paper with new ideas or a thesis you have not already supported or explained in the paper. Remember, a conclusion is meant to reiterate the paper’s main argument and then return the thesis to the larger issue the paper is addressing and should not present any new arguments or topics in the process.

Proofreading is an important step in the writing process. One technique is to read your paper aloud, which will help you catch errors you might overlook when reading silently. Another strategy is to use spell check on your computer to correct any typos. Proofreading is an important step in the writing process. Read your paper aloud to catch errors, and use spell check on your computer to correct any typos.

The writing process takes patience.

As you build support for your thesis in the body paragraphs, always ask yourself if you are spending your readers’ time wisely.

If your scope isn’t clear, then readers will constantly wonder when you’ll address the larger topic–or even assume you simply forgot to do it.

Make sure the reader knows your position on the issue.

One sign of a weak thesis is if the statement does not make a concise claim, or if the claim is already proven true from its factual contents.

Simply put, a thesis is your main point, the line of argument that you are pursuing in your essay. The thesis should answer two simple questions: What issue are you writing about, and what is your position on that topic? A thesis statement is often a single sentence

Your introduction should state the issue at hand, establish your position regarding it, describe your paper’s organization, and identify the scope of your coverage

Even if you are brilliant and have great ideas, a muddy or boring introduction will turn away many of your readers.

On the other hand, a good introduction gets to the point, gives the reader a reason to keep on reading, and sets the stage for an exciting performance.

When you look over the draft of your paper, the first part you should focus on is your introduction. Whether it is one paragraph or an entire chapter, the purpose of the introduction is to grab your reader’s attention while simultaneously giving a preview of the information that will be included in the following paragraphs. Make sure you draw your readers in from the beginning and follow with interesting and supportive information. If readers are not intrigued from the very beginning of the piece, they will quickly become distracted and avoid reading any further.

After going through the steps above and making changes as necessary, you should feel your paper is nearly complete. The content should be in place, and your text should make your case clearly and forcefully. If you feel this is the case, you are ready to closely edit and proofread your text.

Another helpful technique in the final revision process is to have someone read your paper aloud to you. This practice will force you to go over the material more slowly and allow you another chance to absorb the content of the paper. When you read your own paper aloud, you are more apt to read the paper as you intended it to be read, as opposed to reading what is actually on the page.

return to the beginning to see how the conclusion relates to the introduction and thesis. Have you maintained the same tone and main idea throughout? Does the ending reiterate your main idea without just summarizing what you’ve already said? Pay attention to your word usage; try to leave little room for misinterpretation when the audience reads your piece.

After doing all this by yourself, seek help from others. First, find an individual who knows about the assignment, your intended audience, and the purpose of the essay. This person is likely one of your peers who has participated in class. Then, share the paper with someone who fits the description of the audience for whom the document is intended. Ask your readers if everything is clear and easily understood, if phrases are worded correctly, if the document is logically sound, etc. If you have other specific concerns — Is the second example effective? Does my conclusion resolve the paper nicely? — ask your readers to direct their attention to those issues

Writing well is an intellectually challenging, and draining, activity. Jotting down ideas on paper is a good start, but revising those ideas so that they are persuasive, cogent, and effective. As you review what you have written, you will undoubtedly see holes in your logic, sentences that confuse rather than clarify, and sentences and paragraphs out of place. Below are some helpful hints to consider as you analyze and transform your paper.

Writers should note that revising, editing, and proofreading are considerably different processes

that successful writers rely on revising as an integral part of the writing process, and it is important for authors to spend the majority of their time revising their texts. Revising and editing are two separate processes that are often used interchangeably by novice writers. Revising requires a significant alteration in a piece of writing, such as enriching the content, or giving the piece clarity; editing, however, is not as involved and includes fixing typos and grammatical errors. Although editing can be a part of this process, revising generally involves changes that concern bigger issues, such as content and organization. While revising, a writer might notice that one idea needs to be developed more thoroughly and another idea omitted. The writer might decide that rearranging paragraphs will provide clarity and support for their argument, strengthening the paper as a whole. Writers should also change grammar and punctuation while revising, but if that is all they are doing, then they are simply editing.

You do not have to make announcements like, “This paragraph is about …” There is no need to remind your reader that he or she is reading a paper. The focus should be on the argument. This kind of announcement is unnecessary, and seeing it in a paper can be somewhat startling to the reader, who’s expecting a professional presentation.

Topic sentences should always connect back to and support your thesis statement.

If you have too many claims, choose the strongest ones to expand into paragraphs, or research the counterarguments to see which of your claims speak most powerfully to those.

Concluding sentence: gives the paragraph closure by relating the claim back to the topic sentence and thesis statement.

When you created your outline, you wrote your thesis statement and then all the claims you need to support it. Then you organized your research, finding the evidence to support each claim. You’ll be grateful to have done that sorting now that you’re ready to write your paragraphs. Each of these claims will become a topic sentence, and that sentence, along with the evidence supporting it, will become a paragraph in the body of the paper.

Facts. Facts are the best kind of evidence to use because they  cannot be disputed and help build your credibility. They support your stance by providing background information or a solid foundation for your point of view. However, some facts may still need explanation. For example, the sentence “The most populated state in the United States is California” is a fact, but it may require some explanation to make it relevant to your specific argument. Judgments. Judgments are conclusions drawn from the given facts. Judgments are more credible than opinions because they are founded upon careful reasoning and examination of a topic. Testimony. Testimony consists of direct quotations from either an eyewitness or an expert witness. An eyewitness is someone who has direct experience with a subject; he adds authenticity to an argument based on facts. An expert witness is a person who has extensive experience with a topic. This person studies the facts and provides commentary based on either facts or judgments, or both. An expert witness adds authority and credibility to an argument. Personal observation. Personal observation is similar to testimony, but personal observation consists of your testimony. It reflects what you know to be true because you have experiences and have formed either opinions or judgments about those experiences. For instance, if you are one of five children and your thesis states that being part of a large family is beneficial to a child’s social development, you could use your own experience to support your thesis. Once you have your evidence organized, and the evidence relates to the points you have outlined for yourself, you have the scaffolding that you need to begin constructing strong body paragraphs. Now it’s

Facts. Facts are the best kind of evidence to use because they  cannot be disputed and help build your credibility. They support your stance by providing background information or a solid foundation for your point of view. However, some facts may still need explanation. For example, the sentence “The most populated state in the United States is California” is a fact, but it may require some explanation to make it relevant to your specific argument.

Be detailed. Remember that your thesis, while specific, should not be overly detailed. The body paragraphs are where you develop the discussion that a thorough essay requires. Using detailed support shows readers that you have considered all the facts and chosen only the most precise details to enhance your point of view.

Be specific. The main points you make about your thesis and the examples you use to expand on those points need to be specific. Use specific examples to provide the evidence and to build upon your general ideas. These types of examples give your reader something narrow to focus on, and if used properly, they leave little doubt about your claim. General examples, while they convey the necessary information, are not nearly as compelling or useful in writing because they are too obvious and typical.

s. It is the most important information you select to argue for your point of view. Each point you choose will be incorporated into the topic sentence for each body paragraph you write. Your primary supporting points are further supported by supporting details within the paragraphs.

When you are ready to write your introduction, there are multiple strategies available to help you craft a great first paragraph. Ideally the end of your first paragraph will clarify the thesis statement you will support in the rest of your paper. The video provides a quick overview of how to create an effective introduction.

Not all people like to begin writing their introduction. Some writers like to begin the body paragraphs and then return to the introduction and conclusion once they know what it is they would like to focus on. There is no one right process. Find the process that works for you.

Once you have the structure of your paper figured out, and the main idea you will support, you can start with the introduction and conclusion.

A formal outline is a detailed guide that shows how all your supporting ideas relate to each other. This outline helps you distinguish between ideas that are equally important and ones that are less important. You can build your paper based on the framework you created in the outline. There are two types of formal outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. Format both types of formal outlines similarly. Place your introduction and thesis statement at the beginning, under roman numeral I. Use roman numerals (II, III, IV, V, etc.) to identify main points that develop the thesis statement. Use capital letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to divide your main points into parts. Use arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) if you need to subdivide any As, Bs, or Cs into smaller parts. End with the final roman numeral expressing your idea for your conclusion. Here is what the skeleton of a traditional formal outline looks like. The indentation helps clarify how the ideas are related. Outlining a Paper

Descriptive writing is most effective when it is organized well. Use the following information to decide what organization best fits your goals. Chronological order → best for describing events Spatial order → best for describing places Order of importance →  best for describing objects and people

To help readers visualize something as you want them to see it To create a main impression using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound)

Chronological To tell a story or relate an experience To explain the history of an event or a topic To introduce the steps in a process

When you write, your goal is not only to complete an assignment but also to write for a specific purpose—perhaps to inform, to explain, to persuade, or to achieve a combination of these purposes. Your purpose for writing should always be in the back of your mind, because it will help you decide which pieces of information belong together and how you will order them.

Order refers to your choice of what to present first, second, third, and so on in your writing. The order you pick closely relates to your purpose for writing that particular assignment. For example, when telling a story, it may be important to first describe the backstory. Or you may need to first describe a 3-D movie projector or a television studio to help readers visualize the setting and scene. You may want to group your support effectively to convince readers that your point of view on an issue is well reasoned and worthy of belief.

When you write, it is helpful when your ideas are presented in an order that makes sense. The writing you complete in all your courses exposes how analytically and critically your mind works. In some courses, the only direct contact you may have with your instructor is through the assignments you write for the course. You can make a good impression by spending time ordering your ideas.

The textbook English for Business Success explains that your prewriting activities and readings can help you gather information for your assignment. The more you sort through the pieces of information you found, the more you will begin to see the connections between them. Patterns and gaps may begin to stand out. But only when you start to organize your ideas will you be able to translate your raw insights into a form that will communicate meaning to your audience.

Once you begin narrowing down your topic, depending on the type of paper, you may be ready to start drafting. The best point to begin writing your draft also depends on the genre of essay you are writing. If you are writing a research paper, then you will need to follow more steps, which are covered in detail later in this book.

Obviously, reading and writing work together. Therefore, while reading, consider your writing situation.