9/11 was the first time that NATO used coalition force and declared war using Article 5 of the NATO. The Article 5 of the NATO only invoked once in history: after the 9/11 attack in the United States. NATO used this article to respond the terrorist attack and coalition army invaded Afghanistan.<br> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty#Article_5

Margaret Thatcher tired her best to recover Britain's economy. Thacherism brought some improvements and guided the country into right direction. However, there were many disputes and controversies about her policies... But, I believe her strong policies saved the United Kingdom from economic recession and allowed to maintain its strong economy.

Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990. She was the first woman who served as the Prime Minister and longest-serving Prime Minister in 20th century. Because of her strict and strong conservative minds, she received a nickname "Iron Lady." She was a strong leader and implemented many policies that resemble conservatism; or Thatcherism. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher

After World War II, the world got divided into two spheres of ideas: capitalism and communism. Many leaders around the world concerned about this phenomenon. Winston Churchill's phrase "Iron Curtain" became real as conflicts and tensions between the capitalists and communists began to rise. When people think about the "iron curtain," they tend to think that term only applied to Europe. But, in reality... there was a long-stretched line from Europe to Far East Asia. Many policies and doctrines separated the world into two different spheres. Capitalists put their best efforts to stop the spread of communism. The Marshall plan, Acheson Doctrine, Truman Doctrine, Domino theory, and creation of NATO are examples that we often forget to think about. In reality, "Iron Curtain" was stretched from Europe to Far East side of Asia. I believe there are some legacies of "Iron Curtain" remain to this day. I think there are distinct economic and social (standard) differences along the line.

Blitzkrieg is also known as the "lightening war." German used this offense method during the World War II and this warfare tactic gave great advantage for German. Germany well-balanced the mechanized or armored vehicles and airplanes to penetrate the defense-line. It was short and fast, but very powerful offense tactics.

Unlike Chamberlain, Winston Churchill knew something was wrong and war was coming. "What if" Nevile Chamberlain did not sign Munich Agreement and started to prepare for the war... the World War II might not happened.

Alliance against the common enemy, Germany.

Indeed, just like what Churchill predicted Czech did not get any help from the Western Powers. The Western Powers manipulated Czechoslovakia to please the Nazi Germany.

Britain and France, two superpowers controlled much of decisions. Since Czech government was weak, they couldn't decide what they want or prefer for their future. It is sad to see that a sovereign state cannot determine own destiny and controlled by superpowers to fill their need.

Neville Chamberlain was a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1940. Chamberlain is well-known for his appeasement foreign policy. His signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938 allowed Nazi Germany to annex Czechoslovakia. He believed that the Munich Agreement would bring a peace. When he returned to Britain after the Munich Agreement, he declared that the Munich Agreement as "peace for our time." However, the World War II began less than a year after the Munich Agreement. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain

It is interesting to see how English politician mentioned about marriage and divorce laws. Thunk about Henry VIII, who abandoned the Roman Catholic to divorce and have numerous wives.

George Orwell was an English writer who wrote many literary works to criticize the society and government. Public's support of his lucid prose, awareness on social injustice, and opposition to totalitarianism were indications that people wanted the change their society. His works helped to build a democratic socialism. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Orwell

I think these women were deserved to get these benefits. Without their effort and sacrifices, it would been much hard to manage the war.

People worked together under the common interest. Their effort greatly helped to manage the war. Just like what happened in the United States during the World War II; role of women drastically increased in society .

This is very powerful sentence. Because it tells how destructive and terrifying imperialism is... (people who are using this idea and concept...).

It is fascinating to see how England, a country from other side of the world, influencing its power in many countries in Asia.

Joseph Chamberlain was British politician who advocated the imperialism. He advocated the imperialistic policies. He argued that just occupying the state is not enough. So he advocated the development and investment in foreign occupied soils. Joseph Chamberlain earned "Joseph Africanus" for his policy. Also, Joseph Chamberlain was father of Austen Chamberlain and Neville Chamberlain.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Chamberlain

Very contradictory comment.

Taking Africa with idea of superiority? This man was out of mind... If he ever had a chance to understand the origin of mankind or evolution, he would not say this! I think the imperialism and many other radical political ideas are generated by ignorance and stupidity. Indeed, Europeans had far superior technologies, but it did not meant they had rights to behave in such way. Without understanding other culture and society, it only created problems.

This is very powerful comment. I think.

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Cecil Rhodes had racist ideas and he was a strong advocate of imperialism. When I read or see the materials that are related to the imperialism, I sometimes get frustrated and angry. I think the imperialism is one of the worst political ideology.

There was no human rights or dignity for workers. I cannot imagine the horrible working conditions.

Many factories and workplaces were depended on child labor. In my political science class, my professor told us that capitalists (business owners) preferred to use child labor. Because it was cheaper, easy to handle and lower risk of uprising than adults.

Unlike the capitalist, Engel concerns about the workers. Capitalists were influenced by "David Ricardo's iron law of wage," and they paid only subsistence wages. Because that much was necessary to bring workers back to work on next day. With this vicious circle, workers were enslaved to the capitalists. So, the capitalists did not concern nor tried to improve the working condition for workers.

Freidrich Engel was lifelong collaborator and benefactor on Karl Marx. Engel shared many ideas about socialism with Marx. Together, they wrote the "Communist Manifesto" and published it in Belgium. Both Engel and Marx were socialist, but they decided to use word "communist" on their book to inflame the political passions to the readers of that time. Marx and Engel first believed that revolution was necessary to change the society. However, they later changed their mind that the revolution would not always necessary especially in industrial countries like England. So I believe that is why that Engel wasn't talking about the socialist revolution in this text. Rather he only talked about the working conditions of workers and etc. Later, Engel also led the orthodox Marxism to bring socialist ideas to people after Marx's death. However, this was not quite successful since orthodox Marxists refused to cooperate in social reform with non-socialist governments and didn't follow the world trend. It is thrilled to see how one's idea was adopted from others(past) and later it influence others(future).

English philosopher, John Stuart Mill published "On Liberty" in 1859. When he published this book as a classic book about liberal arts, and written in a short essays form. His book consisted five chapters. In his book, he argued that the freedom is not free of liberty. However, it was a civil liberty and social freedom. Further he argued that in capitalist society, political freedom is problematic. Mill established a unique area of human liberty, and his ideas later influenced many philosophers.

For example, England's Fabian Society was immensely influenced by Mill's ideas. His idea on civil liberty and social freedom served as a foundation for a contemporary humanitarian nonviolent socialism (Baradat and Phillips).

Mary Wollstonecraft was wife of William Godwin. William Godwin is generally credited with founding modern anarchism. Godwin was devoted to the concept of human equality. And he became the first philosopher in modern times to advocate gender equality as well as social equality. Not surprisingly, his wife, Mary Wollstonecraft, was the first feminist in history. It is fascinating to see how people were connected and influenced by each other to shape their identity.

It is fascinate to see and think how much English philosophers and enlightenment thinkers, such as Thomas Paine, Adam Smith, and John Locke heavily influenced the modern world. I think it represents the influence and power of Britain of that time.

Thomas Paine was born February 9th, 1737, in Thetford, in the United Kingdom. He was an English-American political activist, political philosopher and theorist, and revolutionary. Thomas Paine was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, he authored the two most powerful and influential pamphlets to light the fire of the American Revolution, and he inspired the colonies to declare independence from Britain. Many of his ideas reflected Enlightenment rhetoric regarding transnational human rights. Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” was the fuel needed to transform a colonial squabble into a great victory against Britain. No one could have ever predicted the far-reaching effects of the idea of American independence and how it spread through the colonies like a wildfire. Thomas Paine’s masterpiece, “Common Sense”, changed minds, stirred emotions, and started a movement that gained momentum as it spread.

Adam Smith's concept of "invisible hand."

Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith wrote "The Wealth of Nations," in 1776. His book offered one of the world's first collected descriptions of what build nations' wealth. His book covered the division of labor, productivity, and free markets. The Wealth of Nations is still consider as the masterpiece of economic theory and Adam Smith is father of modern economic. Adam Smith argued in his book, The Wealth of Nations, that the economic system is autonomic, and substantial freedom can regulate the market. Adam Smith introduced the term "invisible hand" in his book; the ability to self-regulate and to ensure maximum efficiency.

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Very similar to contemporary scientific method process! It is interesting to see similar scientific knowledge concepts from the 17th century.

Bacon's belief on scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature.

Just like what Hume believed, sometimes it is hard to understand miracle with human knowledge.

"Of Miracle" is the title section of David Hume's An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. David Hume, a Scottish empiricist philosopher, published An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding in 1748. This book was a revision of his earlier work, A Treaty of Human Nature. In section "Of Miracle," Hume explained the principle of evidence. He argued that the only way that people can judge between two empirical claims is by weighing the evidence. He told his reader that people believe "one claim over another is proportional to the degree by which the evidence for one outweighs the evidence for the other." Further he explained that "the weigh of evidence is a function of such factors as the reliability, manner, and number of witnesses." Hume pointed out that many different religions have their own miracle stories and themes.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding#10._Of_miracles_.28in_two_parts.29

Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet. He is best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer, and he is also famous for his use of the heroic couplet. And the Essay on Man is a philosophical poem written in heroic couplet. The Essay on Man was published in 1732 and Pope intended this poem to be the centerpiece of his proposed system of ethics. Later, he wanted to make into a larger work upon The Essay on Man. However, he couldn't complete his work due to his death in 1744.

The Principia, is arguably the most important book published in modern European history. This book began by offering the reader three basic principles. These three principles are now known as the Newton's three laws of motion. According to Newton, there are three basic principles.

1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
2. The change in motion is proportional to the motive force impressed, and is made in the direction of the straight line in which that force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction. Even today, these three laws are the basic axioms on which physics rests, and the first principles that every high school physics student learns. Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica

English philosopher John Locke’s ideas not only greatly influenced the Enlightenment thinkers in Europe, but also the Founding Fathers in how they established the principles of the nation. His ideas notably recognized unalienable rights such as the social contract and a limited government; these political ideas had a profound impact on the modern democracy seen today. Locke was the first person who defined the self through a continuity of consciousness, and argued that people are born with a mind that is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, which became filled with the knowledge deriving from experience, observation and experimentation. And he meant that the right influences could create a new kind of society by creating a new way of understanding. The Glorious Revolution of 1688, which also transformed the British political landscape, allowed John Locke’s political ideas to triumph. In another masterpiece, The Second Treatise of Government, he claimed that sovereignty belongs to the people and explained the ideas of natural rights and the social contract in a legitimate government. His desire for freedom gave moral pride to other philosophers, and his empirical insight became the foundation of democracy. However, Locke’s political philosophy in The Second Treatise of Government contrasts with the idea of Thomas Hobbes. Although it is necessary to say that Thomas Hobbes’ ideas on natural rights somewhat inspired Locke’s ideas, Locke had a different view on the understanding of nature and absolute state. He argued that the role of government was to protect the “unalienable rights of the individual” – life, liberty, and property – and there should be no authority other than government whose purpose is to protect such rights. In other words, Locke argued that a limited government is given by “popular consent” and also restricted by the subordination of power. He expressed the idea that there could be no freedom without a social contract by saying, “liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from others; which cannot be where there is no law” (Locke). According to his ideas, the understanding of the social contract meant that the purpose of the state was to protect the property of people, not control them (Bond). The Founding Fathers adapted the ideas of Locke and used them as principles of government, which is why these ideas are reflected in the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness” (Jefferson). Also he advocated governmental separtation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. Retrieved from: John YoHan Jin, MCC HIST101 Essay.

John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher. Locke’s monumental An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) is one of the first great defenses of modern empiricism and concerns itself with determining the limits of human understanding in respect to a wide spectrum of topics. It thus tells us in some detail what one can legitimately claim to know and what one cannot. Locke’s association with Anthony Ashley Cooper (later the First Earl of Shaftesbury) led him to become successively a government official charged with collecting information about trade and colonies, economic writer, opposition political activist, and finally a revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Among Locke’s political works he is most famous for The Second Treatise of Government in which he argues that sovereignty resides in the people and explains the nature of legitimate government in terms of natural rights and the social contract. He is also famous for calling for the separation of Church and State in his Letter Concerning Toleration. Much of Locke’s work is characterized by opposition to authoritarianism. This is apparent both on the level of the individual person and on the level of institutions such as government and church. For the individual, Locke wants each of us to use reason to search after truth rather than simply accept the opinion of authorities or be subject to superstition. He wants us to proportion assent to propositions to the evidence for them. On the level of institutions it becomes important to distinguish the legitimate from the illegitimate functions of institutions and to make the corresponding distinction for the uses of force by these institutions. Locke believes that using reason to try to grasp the truth, and determine the legitimate functions of institutions will optimize human flourishing for the individual and society both in respect to its material and spiritual welfare. This in turn, amounts to following natural law and the fulfillment of the divine purpose for humanity.

Source: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/

The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. The English Bill of Rights was passed on December 16, 1689. It is a restatement in stuatory form of the Declaration of Right of 1689 which was presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February of 1689. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689

The Petition of Right of 1628 is one of England’s most famous Constitutional documents. The Petition of Right was passed on June 7, 1628, and it guaranteed specific liberties of people and prohibited king’s infringing. This petition sought recognition of four main principles: no taxation without the consent of Parliament, no imprisonment without cause, no quartering of soldiers on subjects, and no martial law in peacetime. The Petition of Right is seen as a most important constitutional document with the Magna Carta and Bill of Rights 1689. The Founding Fathers adopted the main four principles, and these principles immensely influenced the Third, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh amendments to the Constitution of the United States.

"Famous victory over those enemies of my God," this phrase indicates how much Queen Elizabeth I had faith in new religion. By saying this, she promulgated Protestants as a righteous Christian and Catholic as unrighteous anymore.

This speech was delivered to the Troops at Tilbury on August 9th, 1588 by Queen Elizabeth I of England to the land forces earlier assembled at Tilbury in Essex in preparation for repelling the expected invasion by the Spanish Armada. Elizabeth was very deliberate in the way that she presented herself as Queen of England, and this instance is no different. The very words of her speech as well as her literal appearance at the event contributed to create a distinct, powerful leader who was at once another citizen and soldier in England’s army and a supreme leader.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_to_the_Troops_at_Tilbury

Not the Pope. But the King or Queen of England is the Supreme Head of the Church. I think this idea was a shock to most of Catholic countries in the Europe. The Act of Supremacy shows that how much the Church of England (and Henry VIII) wanted to be separate from the Catholic and expresses the righteous of their new state religion.

The Acts of Supremacy are two acts of the Parliament of England passed in 1534 and 1559 which established King Henry VIII of England and subsequent monarchs as the supreme head of the Church of England. Prior to 1534, the supreme head of the English Church was the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Supremacy

"Hamlet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at between 1599 and 1602. It set in Denmark, the revenge Prince Hamlet is called to wreak upon his uncle, Claudius, by the ghost of Hamlet's father, King Hamlet. Claudius had murdered his own brother and seized the throne, also marrying his deceased brother's widow. Hamlet is Shakespeare's longest play, and is considered among the most powerful and influential works of world literature. The play likely was one of Shakespeare's most popular works during his lifetime, and still ranks among his most performed, topping the performance list of the Royal Shakespeare Company and its predecessors in Stratford-upon-Avon since 1879. It has inspired many other writers—from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Charles Dickens to James Joyce and Iris Murdoch—and has been described as "the world's most filmed story after Cinderella"."

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet

Piers Plowman is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem. It is written in unrhymed alliterative verse divided into sections called passus. It is considered by many critic to be one of the greatest works of English literature of the Middle Ages. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piers_Plowman

I think the Peasant Revolts was a major event which tells us common people fought against the tyranny and wanted to improve their society.

He was executed for his loyalty to the king.

Walworth was the Lord Mayor of London. Best known for killing Wat Tyler.

The Peasant Revolt was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in Essex on 30 May 1381. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt

London had many religious buildings from Cathedrals to small churches. It tells us how much people of London were devoted to the Christianity and religion(Christianity) might influenced the society.

I think this is quite interesting!

How it described in the text, we can assume that London had great architectural structures. When I visited London last year, I was amazed by the size, quality, design, and immense structure of buildings that built during this period. It ardently portrayed the power and strength of the city.

You can see how much the Roman Catholic Church and Christianity(religion) influenced, interfered and controlled the society and people. I sometimes feel that the Church abused their power too much during this period.

Italic

During the medieval Europe, trial by ordeal was considered and had similar idea of trial by combat. A procedure was based on the premise of God and people believed God will vindicate or help the innocent. From our contemporary viewpoint, it may sound crucial or have some elements that we think as inappropriate. However, during this period... the God and religion played the most important role in the society.

Bold

As written in this phrases, we can see people had many involvements with their religion. And we can predict the "God" and religion was heavily influenced their life and culture at this time of period.

Italic

Just as described in the text, I can see that King William cared about his people and tried his best to serve his people and country than any of his predecessors. By doing so, I think King William brought the peace and prosperity.

From very early era.

Sometimes we (historians) face some difficulties to find clear evidences; especially if the period that you are studying are very long time ago.

It is very interesting that war sometimes help to find some great archaeological sites.

I think that mentioning about the most blessed apostle, Peter, indicates that how much the Christianity played as important role in this period. I think that society was solely or heavily influenced with the Roman Catholicism.

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Italic

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The Battle of Maldon in 991AD; the Anglo-Saxons fought bravely against the Viking invasion. I think "The Song of Maldon" shows some glimpses of battle and the fact that people later wrote a song about the battle indicated how important this battle was.

These seven laws indicates that people had quite different perspectives and mindsets in the past.

Bold

You can see how hard for the Christians to spread the Christianity.

Interesting facts

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