Studies designed to determine how various compounds are emitted into the atmosphere.

Evaporate more quickly into the gas phase.

From human activities.

Hydrocarbon liquid environments that dissolve chemicals responsible for the functioning of a product.

Comes from products derived from oil and natural gas.

A way to keep track of where all of the atoms and molecules are formed and where they end up.

Substances used by people that give off gas-phase molecules.

Molecules that exit the tailpipe of a vehicle while driving.

The analytical method begins with empirical observations, from which principles and formula are inferred (which can be applied to other cases).

Empirical methods involve observation and experience, rather than logical deduction alone.

A value that indicates how resistant a thing is to a change of motion.

Modern physicists use the term "inertial mass" instead of "inert mass."

Modern physicists call "inert" and "heavy" masses "inertial" and "gravitational," respectively.

Protein responsible for converting light to a chemical signal that allows us to see.

A causal relationship means that the data suggests that one variable has a direct influence on another.

Climate models are created using complex mathematical representations of the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, ice, and the sun. Such models are tested against real world data and once they can realistically reproduce past climate conditions, then they are used to simulate future conditions.

Different models might use different mathematical equations in their calculations, some of which may have large uncertainties involved for certain environmental interactions. As our understanding of the environment improves, the models also improve in their predictive capabilities but because of the complexity of the global Earth environment there is still more to discover about the world around us.

For more about the reliability of climate models, visit Skeptical Science: https://www.skepticalscience.com/climate-models.htm

The atmosphere is not all uniform. There are layers of the atmosphere which differ in gas concentrations, temperatures, and density.

The troposphere is the lowest layer and extends from sea level up to about 6.2 miles (10 km) into the atmosphere. This region is where weather occurs and the layer above is known as the stratosphere.

Image from the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.

Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with change in altitude. So if wind moves rapidly upwards or downwards, it would be a vertical shear.

Strong vertical wind shear tends to inhibit cyclone development, but may also extend the lifetimes of individual thunderstorms.

In order to be called a hurricane (or a typhoon or tropical cyclone) the storm system must reach sustained winds of 74 miles (119 km) per hour or higher.

Meteorologists use the generic term 'tropical cyclone' to describe a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters. These large scale air masses tend to spiral around an atmospheric region of low pressure.

Different places around the world will call these storm systems by different terms: hurricane, typhoon, or tropical cyclone.

For more information visit: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/cyclone.html

According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) hurricane "storms are given short, distinctive names to avoid confusion and streamline communications."

The US began using female names for hurricanes in 1953 and started including male names in 1978.

For more information visit NOAA's website: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/storm-names.html

Some research groups make their data and testing materials widely available for others to use.

A feature from the American Psychological Association lists several advantages for doing this, including making science widely accessible and being able to reproduce previous results.

However, participants who have already seen test materials in a different study might not give answers that reflect what they truly think, which may affect the study's results.

Experimental ethics investigates philosophical questions with experiments.

Amazon Mechanical Turk is a website that lets users earn money for doing small tasks. It has become increasingly popular for researchers, who use it to reach a wide audience online. A large and diverse set of data can be collected in a short period of time.

When a ring is cleaved, a set of atoms that were bonded together in a closed shape, like the hexagon in part B of the above figure, experience a bond breaking that opens up the closed shape.

We often think of appendages as being arms or leg in animals, but in bacteria they are thin tubes that emerge from the cell wall. Bacterial appendages help bacteria move and attach themselves to surfaces.

Bead-loading is a technique for quickly and efficiently loading large numbers of macromolecules (such as DNA and RNA) onto the cells of tissues.

A type of cell that lacks the p16 gene (which normally suppresses growth), allowing it to continue to grow and divide indefinitely while there are resources.

Antibodies "against" the FLAG-tag (SM).

A specific sequence of amino acids that can be added to proteins to "tag" them. Antibodies have been developed that have high affinity for the tag, so it is a popular choice in this kind of visualization experiment.

A circular, double stranded piece of DNA that is often used as an intermediary to insert genes into a genome.

Dyes that will not degrade when exposed to light.

The process by which RNA molecules are synthesized with information from DNA.

The process by which an amino acid chain (and eventual protein) is created using information from mRNA.

The main protein that is involved in translating mRNA into proteins.

A complex of mRNA and multiple ribosomes formed during translation.

Randomly.

The rate at which a new protein is synthesized (or "elongated").

An epitope is the part of a molecule that an antibody recognizes and binds to (usually as part of an immune response).

Epitope tagging takes advantage of this by creating special versions of proteins that have specific epitopes on them. The proteins can then be detected using antibodies that bind to the specific epitope.

A method that tracks the synthesis of new proteins by using fluorescent molecules to track the movement of molecules in the cell.

In a living organism.

A type of RNA that transmits information from DNA (where genetic information is stored) to the ribosome (where proteins are created from genetic information).

a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons and thereby be reduced.

the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen.

the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.

an embankment built to prevent the overflow of a river.

a passage for surplus water to run over or around an obstruction (such as a dam)

refers to variations in the state and characteristics of a water body which are regularly repeated in time and space and which pass through phases, e.g. seasonal. (DJ)

soil that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part.

the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide

one of the most serious weeds in Florida. It grows in or near shallow waters forming monocultures where it can quickly displace native vegetation.

common symptom or name of disease, especially of woody plants, characterized by progressive death of twigs, branches, shoots, or roots, starting at the tips.

wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams, where they form a transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds.

period of time during which a wetland ( land that is mostly covered by water) is covered by water.

Any movement of carbon between these reservoirs is called a flux. Which means transfer of carbon from one pool to another.

sometimes also called stocks or reservoirs because they act as storage houses for large amounts of carbon.

An affinity for neural tissue.

Here, it refers to the fact that Zika virus specifically targets neural cells.

Underdevelopment of the brain that causes a child's head to smaller than normal.

Newborn children, up to four weeks old.

The acknowledgements section of scientific papers provides several pieces of information. This section identifies the funding sources that supported the work, as well as individuals who contributed to the research that didn't reach the level of being added as an author. This section also often provides details about the source of materials, data, information, and sometimes even ideas that are included in the paper. Here, the acknowledgements include links to the climate projections and reconstructions.

A biome marked by seasonal changes that typically sees tree growth in the summer, and a shedding of leaves in the winter.

This Pathway has the global emission peak between 2010–2020, and decrease substantially after that, with a reduction in the total concentration starting after 2050. This RCP results in a projection near the 2°C target.

Models of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations that were developed to provide researchers with a common set of pathways and their data for modeling and research. These pathways were used in the IPCC report published in 2014, in advance of the 2015 Paris Conference. The numbers refer to the increase in radiative forcing values The numbers refer to the increase in radiative forcing values (W/m²—a measure of how much more solar energy Earth is retaining because of the greenhouse effect) that would be expected in 2100 compared to pre-industrial levels.

For this figure, the years are not using the formal B.P. definition where "present" is 1950. In this case, "present" is 2000–2010.

The formal term Before Present (B.P.) refers to years before 1950, which was set as the dividing point during the early years of radiocarbon dating. When the term is not capitalized, that may mean it is being used informally and has a different time frame for the "present," such as the year when the paper is published or the most recent year of the reported data.

Were the authors using the term formally or informally? Given what you now know, what does the "present" mean in this description?

Some climate variables and characteristics, such as temperature, leave no direct evidence of their values and variations in the historical record before humans began to observe and record them. However, researchers can use analysis and modeling of related data that are available, such as pollen cores, to build reconstructions of these characteristics and variables, and fill in gaps. In this case, a model uses pollen core data to reconstruct information about climate and the types of plant ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin over the past 10,000 years.

The Industrial Revolution led to a large increase in the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere as a result of human activities, so this is a common dividing point for looking at climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change sets this dividing line at the year 1750 for their reports.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty with the objective of "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." In other words, to limit human-produced greenhouse gases in order to stabilize Earth's global climate.

The treaty is a framework for negotiating future international treaties for action on those goals. It entered into force in 1994 after it was ratified by enough countries.

In regards to conservation, it is the process of protecting endangered plant species that is outside of its natural habitat.

Increasing in aridity, usually reducing the number of life forms able to survive there.

Landscape characterized by sinkholes and caves, formed by the dissolution of soluble rock like limestone, dolomite or gypsum.

Whereby land rights are formally recognized for people living on or near the forest, so that they may benefit from its use (or of harvesting of some natural forest products).

A term coined by Liu and colleagues that argues for an unconventional introduction approach, in which orchid populations planted in natural forests are sustainably harvested.

Plants that grow in or on rocks.

Creating new life using man-made methods.

Natural resources gathered from the biosphere. Examples: forests, animals, and marine organisms.

Sedimentary rocks (limestone landscapes) are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form when deposits accumulate forming distinctive layers.

A rare and endangered saprophytic orchid commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine for hypertension, relieving headaches, and convulsions.

Self-sustaining, reproductive.

"Hotspot" is widely used in reference to regions of especially high biodiversity in plants and/or animals.

An actual list of all the species found in a park or area; commonly provided in reserves.

A species not native to the area.

The worth of the orchid in this habitat, with regards to supporting other life forms, pollinators, water cycling, microhabitat creation, etc.

Growing on another plant or structure, as opposed to rooted in the ground.

These developed countries have fewer species of native orchids.

Fauna refers to animal life, whereas Flora refers to plant life.

Over use of a species for food, medicine, and other commercial purposes.

A region's plants and their traditional uses.

A branch of agriculture concerned with growing plants that can be eaten, used for medicinal purposes, or ornamental purposes.

Plants native to, and sometimes only found in this area.

Genus of orchid.

James Clerk Maxwell and Hendrik Antoon Lorentz were physicists of the late 1800s and early 1900s. Their work is the foundation of the branch of physics called electromagnetism.

This is the second kind of theory that Einstein delineates. He tells us that a theory of principle is one that is formed from the most consistent and basic observations seen across all natural phenomena.

A constructive theory is one that is built up (i.e., constructed) from assumptions to explain a natural phenomenon.

A proposition states a claim that can be either true or false.

In its original condition; unspoiled.

Causing harm or damage.

Foraging is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce.

Widely or constantly encountered; common or widespread.

Not part of the essential nature of someone or something; coming or operating from outside.

Belonging naturally; essential.

Provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide anti-herbivore protection.

A substitute, especially a person acting for another in a specific role or office.

Originating in human activity (chiefly of environmental pollution and pollutants).

To prevent the occurrence of something.

To prevent (someone) from accomplishing something.

Present, appearing, or found everywhere.

Make (something) clear; to explain.

An insect whose larvae live as parasites that eventually kill their hosts.

Life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages.

A phase between two periods of molting in the development of an insect larva or other invertebrate animal.

Order of insects that includes butterflies and moths.

A table showing the distribution of one variable in rows and another in columns, used to study the association between the two variables.

Omnibus tests are statistical tests that are designed to detect any of a broad range of departures from a specific null hypothesis.

A taxonomic category, as a species or genus.

A phase between two periods of molting in the development of an insect larva or other invertebrate animal.

Of, on, or relating to the earth.

Causing harm or damage.

Subtropical dry broadleaf forest biome, also known as tropical dry forest, monsoon forest, vine thicket, vine scrub and dry rain forest is located at tropical and subtropical latitude.

The process of breeding animals in controlled environments within well-defined settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other commercial and noncommercial conservation facilities.

The first host plant supplies food resources to micropredators, which have an evolutionarily stable relationship with their hosts - similar to ectoparasitism.

A plant upon which an organism (such as an insect or mildew) lodges and subsists.

Experiments used by ecologists to determine the effectiveness of putative plant pollination vectors.

The number of organisms of a particular kind as a percentage of the total number of organisms of a given area or community.

Species diversity is defined as the number of species and abundance of each species that live in a particular location.

Hypermorphic refers to mutations in the gene that result in an increase of gene expression. Therefore, hypermorphic alleles result in hyper-pigmentation as described in the paper.

Prostaglandin are a group of fatty acids that act as hormones in the body. For example, during pregnancy the contractions are stimulated by a prostaglandin.

Hypoxia refers to the condition in the body where there is a deprivation of oxygen to the tissues.

Heterotypic refers things that are different in form or type. So, heterotypic cell to cell adhesion is adhesion between two different types of cells.

Catenin is a type of protein in the human body that is in charge of regulation and coordination of cell to cell adhesion.

Synergistic effects refers to an effect where the combination of both is greater than the sum of the individual parts. So the whole is greater than its individual parts.

Irradiation refers to treating something with radiation, in this case UV light.

Aberrant refers to something that differs from the accepted standard, so it could be something that is abnormal. For example aberrant Edn3 expression is that expression which differs from the norm.

Melanomagenesis refers to the development of melanoma through the multistep process of genetic mutations.

Cutaneous refers to something in the body relating to the skin. Therefore, non-cutaneous refers to something that does not have to do with the skin. For example non-cutaneous melanocytes would be those that grow in areas not relating the the skin.

Melanoblasts are precursors to melanocytes. So, they are the cells that come before the melanocytes.

This study was done on the neural crests taken from murine cultures, so it is also an in vitro study of the effects of endothelin on the development on melanocytes but this time on a different species.

The sciatic nerve is a long nerve in the body that runs from the bottom of the spine to the back of the leg and above the knee joint.

Transdifferentiation is when a cell, other than a stem cell, differentiates into a different type of cell.

Induce refers to the production or promoting of something. So if the Edn3 induces proliferation, it brings about proliferation.

Contact inhibition is a process in the body that regulates cell growth. For example, when the cells come in contact with each other, its a sign that its time to stop growing, hence the name contact inhibition.

In vitro refers to a study that took place outside of the living organism, so in a test tube or culture dish, etc. The opposite would be an in vivo experiment that takes pace inside the organism.

A chemotactic response is a response to a chemical stimulus that results in the movement of the body.

A dorsolateral pathway is one that is on the dorsal and lateral surfaces. Lateral refers to something away from the mid line of the body and dorsal refers to the upper back of an animal.

Melanoblasts are cells that become melanocytes. They proliferate and pile up in the migrating stage area. Then they become part of developing hair follicles, where they differentiate into melanocytes.

Endogenous refers to something that originates from within an organism, or something that has an internal cause or origin. A promoter that is endogenous originates from within.

Aganglionosis is characteristic in megacolon and it means that there are no ganglia present. Ganglia, or ganglion cells, are a type of nerve cell responsible for moving food in the colon. As a result, their absence can lead to constipation.

Megacolon is an abnormal dilation of the colon. So, the colon widens and oftentimes the movement of the bowels can stop.

Melanin is the skin-darkening pigment produced in melanocytes. Therefore, melanogenic refers to a melanocytes ability to produce melanin. If a substance is melanogenic it stimulates a cell to produce melanin.

Mitogenic refers to stimulating a cell to start dividing through mitosis. For example, a mitogen is a chemical that stimulates division in a cell, so it has mitogenic properties.

A kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a desired molecule. For example, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase is in charge of transferring a phosphate group from ATP to tyrosine in proteins. Tyrosine is one of the 20 amino acids found in proteins.

An enzyme that is in charge of catalyzing the formation of cyclic AMP into ATP. To catalyze means to increase the rate of the reaction, so this enzymes speeds up the rate at which ATP is produced from cyclic AMP. ATP is the energy molecule of the body.

Phospholipase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes, or breaks down, phospholipids into fatty acids. There are four types of these enzymes: A, B, C, and D.

Cardiomyocytes are cardiac muscle cells. For example, the heart is made up of cardiac muscle, and thus these cells.

Refers to a macromolecule that is made up of at least three subunits where one of the subunits of the molecule differs from the other two. A G-Protein is an example, because it is made up of an alpha, beta, and gamma subunits.

G-Protein Coupled Receptors are located in the cell membrane of eukaryotes. Their function is to receive signals from the outside, that will then produce a cellular response. There are many different types of these receptors talked about in the paper.

Paracrine Factors are produced by certain cells in order to communicate with adjacent cells around them. They are a form of signaling between cells to alter the behavior of cells around them.

A receptor antagonist functions by blocking a biological response by binding to the receptor that would have previously stimulated this response. For example, for the endothilin receptor type b (Ednrb) discussed in this paper, an antagonist would bind to it and block the response that would have been produced originally. So they function as biological blockers.

Metastases refers to when a malignant tumor grows at a site away from the original site. For example, if you say that lung cancer metastasized to the liver it means that the lung cancer is now also found in the liver. It developed at a site away from the original, in this case from the lungs to the liver.

In cells, differentiation refers to a cell that is less specialized becoming more specialized. This occurs during development, so melanocyte differentiation is when developing cells specialize into melanocytes.

A precursor is something that happens before something else. So in terms of biology it refers to a cell or tissue that will give rise to another cell or tissue that is more specialized, or mature. In this paper, a melanocyte precursors are cells that came before and will differentiate into melanocytes.

The neural crest is an embryonic structure in vertebrates that gives rise to many types of cells, primarily cells of the peripheral nervous system. So during embryonic development, the neural crest differentiates and migrates to give rise to specialized cell types. They also give rise to melanocytes which will be further discussed in the paper.

Melanocytes are skin cells that produce the pigment melanin. Melanin is the skin darkening pigment that is known for protecting the skin from harmful rays.

Endothelin is a vasoconstrictive peptide produced in endothelial cells. Vasoconstriction means that these peptides constrict blood vessels, increasing blood pressure as a result. These peptides are composed of 21 amino acids and there are three types: endothelin 1, endothelin 2, and endothelin 3.

A chronic disorder characterized by uncontrollable repetition of behaviors and uncontrollable thoughts.

The likelihood of an individual developing a disease or being injured.

Characteristics, symptoms, or behaviors that are shared across different psychological diseases and that may represent similar underlying causes.

The authors use the term to highlight the similarities between CUD and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The connection may represent a similar underlying mechanism and suggests that CUD patients could be more prone to developing compulsive habits.

Two diseases or medical conditions that occur simultaneously in a patient.

Symptoms like anxiety, irritability, depression, and drug cravings that often occur when an addicted person stops using a drug.

Values associated with stimuli. It allows individuals to perceive or react positively or negatively to a presented stimulus.

The flow of dopamine within the striatum.

The striatum is a part of the brain that is involved in the motor and reward system. This part of the brain receives dopamine to mediate motor and reward behaviors.

Dopaminergic neurotransmission is the regulation of the release of dopamine from the terminal end of a neuron (axon), the clearance of it (mediated by transporters), diffusion, and its metabolism.

A drug that competes with dopamine for binding to the dopamine receptor. When the drug binds to the dopamine receptor, dopamine can no longer bind to it, preventing the effect of dopamine signaling.

A variable that is predicted to interact with the variable being tested in a study (and that might affect the outcome of the study).

The continued use of the drug (cocaine) regardless of health and social consequences.

Evidence gathered using model systems like rats and mice. Model organisms are useful for understanding how a treatment or therapy might affect humans, and are often used extensively before human trials begin.

Something that comes before. Here, "antecedent stimuli" means a stimuli that comes before drug use.

Affected.

Characterized by a desire to seek pleasure.

Intended as punishment.

Relating to the use and effects of medicines.

A locus in DNA where the Melanogenesis Associated Transcription Factor (MITF) binds to exert its effects on gene expression.

MITF earned its name because it is a transcription factor associated with pigmentation. So, MITF binding sites are likely to be near genes involved in pigmentation.

The F_ST is the fixation index, which describes genetic differences between populations by measuring genetic differences among and between populations.

An F_ST value close to 1.0 indicates that the populations being compared are highly divergent (very different) from one another.

A lysosome is an organelle in animal cells where unwanted material gets digested. A lysosomal protein is a molecule that performs its function inside (or on the surface of) the lysosome.

The uneven distribution of species in an area.

This is an organization that works with partners in the Amazonia and they research on things like soil nutrition.

This is a graphical technique for representing a data set, it shows one or more variables and their relationships.

A pressed plant sample deposited and used for future research, this is used when a specific plant cannot be determined during the field work, so it is later researched to determine its species.

Shannon was who introduced the concept of entropy. Entropy is the disorder in the universe.

The amount of species there are in a given plot.

One third of the acre.

Touching or sharing a border.

Describes plots of different vegetation involved.

Set boundaries or limits.

Used to measure the distribution of organisms. The land and the species found there are separated into continuous quadrants.

How species are arranged in an area.

Study of rate of growth.

1 hectare plot = 100 acres.

The Amazon basin covers 40% of South America. It is the part that is drained by the Amazon river. Most is covered by rain forests.

The picogram is equal to one trillionth of a gram.

Plot method where, the lines are laid out one after the other without attempting to maintain a set direction.

The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. Used to measure variability.