An organic compound that interferes with protein synthesis

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Cycloheximide.png

Fading of the fluorophore to stop the fluorescence of the protein

Procedure that compares the fluorescent intensity between different molecules

A statistical method used to show the normal distribution of data

A restricted area that is seen through the lens of a microscope

Untranslated region of the mRNA at the 3’ end

Histone protein that is part of the core, or the part of the histone the DNA wraps around

Nonmuscular cytoskeleton protein involved in movement and structure of the cell

a point used to compare things against -RKL

Tagging method that consists on getting information about the tagged fish through underwater sound signals.

Acoustic waves are converted into electrical signals that can be tracked to follow the position of the species. YS & WT

Mountain ecosystems.

Plants with hard leaves that are close together on the stem, adapted to hot and dry conditions.

Plains or grasslands, generally without trees except in areas around water like lakes or rivers.

A 2°C change is about the same as a 3.6°F change.

The past 10,000 years of the Holocene includes all of recorded human history, and is a common timeframe for examining the recent (geologically speaking) past. The geological epoch of the Holocene began about 11,700 years ago with the end of the last major ice age.

This RCP assumes that greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise from now through 2100. The Materials and Methods section calls this the "business as usual" scenario, and indicates this would result in an average global temperature increase of 4°C by 2100.

In this RCP, the greenhouse gas emissions increase until 2040, and then decrease. This results in the total concentration leveling out after approximately 2060.

Plaques are buildups of calcium or whatever.

A process in which neurons are damaged or die as a result of too much stimulation (or excitation, hence "excito-toxicity").

For example, excitotoxicity can occur from a seizure.

Originating from within the body. In this case, "endogenous" refers to the tau proteins that occur naturally in the body of the mice.

Tau proteins are primarily found in neurons of the central nervous system.

They stabilize the neuron's microtubules, which are components of the cell's cytoskeleton, the inner stabilizing network of filaments and tubules.

A protein that is bound to microtubules.

Microtubules are part of a neuron’s inner cytoskeleton that maintains the structure and stability of the cell.

A small protein.

Mice that do not have the hAPP gene (normal mice).

Wrong or deviating from the norm.

Any extension of a neuron, like an axon or a dendrite.

Wasting away.

Dots or points.

The breakdown of a protein by enzymes.

Ground up or processed tissue.

A molecule that binds to a protein and changes its function.

Cause or origin.

Learning (and remembering) where something is in 3D space.

In this case, the mouse cannot see the platform hidden under the surface of the water. It has to remember from previous trials where it's located.

A maze in which mice learn the location of a platform. The platform is visible at first and then hidden under the water surface once the mice learn its location.

This type of maze requires the hippocampus, one of the first parts of the brain to become damaged in Alzheimer’s disease.

See a video about the Morris Water maze here:

http://www.jove.com/video/897/morris-water-maze-experiment

https://youtu.be/leHLL4vcbCc

Specific genetic mutations that cause Alzheimer’s disease.

These mutations are very rare and only account for about 2% of all cases of Alzheimer’s disease. If an individual has one of these rare mutations s/he is destined to get Alzheimer’s disease (100% chance of developing Alzheimer's).

Mice that have been genetically engineered to produce the amyloid precursor protein, which is thought to give rise to amyloid-β.

A set of genes inherited together.

In this case, the authors discuss the idea that several genes related to the tau protein seem to affect the probability that a person will develop Alzheimer’s disease later in life.

This means that molecular changes are made to tau proteins after they are being made.

Some types of abnormal tau appear in cases of Alzheimer’s disease.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia. It's a disease of aging in which the proteins amyloid-β and tau build up or aggregate in the brain, causing neurons to die.

Amyloid-β proteins build up into clumps called plaques, and abnormal tau proteins fall off of their microtubules, which kills the neurons. These tau proteins later aggregate into clumps called tangles.

Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include memory and cognitive problems, and patients eventually die from the disorder.

This peptide consists of a strand of up to about 40 amino acids that are the main component of the amyloid plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.

A specific type of branch given off by axons that is important to learning and memory.

The hippocampus is a part of the brain that is critical to learning and memory. Because of this, it is one of the most often studied and well-understood structures and there are established experimental methods to study it.

The authors investigated the hippocampus because their results indicated that damage occurs to it during blast exposure.

ELISA is a common test used to identify and quantify a protein in a sample. It is similar to immunoblotting in tissues, but is performed in a solution.

To learn about ELISA, see the Journal of Visualized Experiments:

https://www.jove.com/science-education/5061/the-elisa-method

Glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) is a naturally ocurring protein expressed in the astrocytes of the brain.

After blast TBI or other forms of brain injury, GFAP expression is increased, indicating astrocytic activation. This increase in GFAP expression can be seen in the figure by comparing Panel G with Panel H, or by comparing the right side of the blast-exposed brain with the left side (Panel H).

Neurons that stain darker than surrounding neurons.

Dark neurons are controversial in neuropathology because there is evidence that rough handling of tissue samples can cause them. However, the dark neurons that the authors observed are not uniform [AND THEREFORE?] could not be the result of improper handling. The presence of dark neurons in blast-exposed mice suggests dead or dying neurons.

Pigment granules associated with wear and tear on a cell. Abnormal accumulation can be a sign of disease.

Perivascular astrocytes have feetlike structures that interact with blood vessels in the brain. Hydropic means that these "feet" are filled with fluid.

To explore these regions of the brain, see the Allen Brain Atlas.

When transmitting a signal (using light, sound, electricity, etc), transmission is most efficient when the two objects have similar impedance (like resistance). If the impedance values between the objects is different, the signal is both transmitted and at least partially reflected.

A blast pressure wave traveling through air behaves similarly to a signal transmission. In this case, the difference in impedance led to a back reflection of part of the shock wave.

Executive function refers to specific cognitive functions carried out in the frontal lobes. They include things such as making decisions, setting and planning for multistep goals, controlling our emotions, moral reasoning, and our working memory (part of our short-term memory).

Activities like writing a paper use many cognitive tasks that depend on executive function. Damage to the prefrontal cortex can impair executive function and interfere with tasks that rely on it.

"-pathy" comes from the Greek pathos and means disease. Words that end in -pathy indicate disease.

For example, myelinated axonopathy refers to disease of the myelinated axons.

A medical condition that is the result of a previous disorder or disease.

Pronounced "seh kweh lay."

Damage to the brain caused by a strong outside force, such as a football tackle or an explosion.

Related to thinking, understanding, learning, and memory.

Brains that came from people who had already died.

A brain disease often found in athletes with a history of repeated head injuries and military veterans with a history of blast exposure.

Replicated.

Damage to the brain caused by a strong outside force, such as a football tackle or an explosion.

Cause.

A protein found in the brain that is important to the structure of neurons. Functional tau protein is important to proper intracellular communication and healthy neurons.

Diseases caused by defective tau protein are called tauopathies. Examples of tauopathies include chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and Alzheimer's disease.

routines

Extreme (weather) events such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods, and particularly warming-related extreme weather events, such as droughts and heatwaves, are expected to become more frequent as a result of climate change.

Visit here for more information on extreme weather events and their relation to climate change, courtesy of the 2014 U.S. Global Change Research Program.

The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), is a free, open-access platform for collecting and sharing data on species observations.

Visit GBIF here.

Bumblebees of North America is a comprehensive guide to North American bumblebees.

See here to preview the guide yourself.

Exogenous refers to something originating outside the organism.

Endogenous refers to something originating within the organism.

Chimeric refers to something composed of two different elements

The receptor protein tsr undergoes post-translation modifications in the form of methylation of some of its glutamine residues to attain the active form. It's called a chemotactic protein since it controls swimming behavior of E.Coli by generating signals by sensing ribose and galactose that influence the direction of flagellar rotation.

Autofluorescence is the fluorescence emitted by cellular structures when they have absorbed light. This often obscures signals from proteins of interests in microscopy especially when signal is week.

Copy number here refers to the number of protein molecules existing in the cell at any instant of time.

A Temporal change refers to change as a function of time.

Lac Operon is a collection of adjacent bacterial genes responsible for the entry and metabolism of lactose. It contains the genes coding for three enzymes and is flanked by a repressor and a promoter region to control expression.

The central dogma of molecular biology states that biological information flows in only one direction, from DNA to RNA to proteins.

Exceptions have since been found, however: for example, reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that uses RNA as a template to form DNA --- so information, as known now, can flow in the wrong direction too (from RNA to DNA).

Not all genes in the cell are expressed in equal amount; some are expressed much lesser than others. Studying such genes requires methods to probe one or very few molecules at a time.

A stochastic process is one involving a random variable. It used as a counterpart of the word "deterministic".

Yellow fluorescent protein (GFP) and homologous fluorescent proteins must undergo chemical reactions after translation in order to become fluorescent.

Going from the translated polypeptide to the fluorescent form of the protein is called "maturation. The variant of YFP used here (Venus) has a short maturation time.

Errors during DNA replication or the invasion by viral DNA can lead to the duplication of a gene. Over time, the two copies of the genes differentiate. Three scenarios are known: Neofunctionalization: One gene develops a new function

Subfunctionalization: The two copies of the gene split the functionality between them

Loss: One gene loses its functionality.

In this context, dynamic rewiring refers to the change of interactions over time after a gene duplication event.

The representation of all interactions in an organism (molecular interactome network). The molecules are mostly visualized as nodes and the interactions as edges.

A representation of interactions between different entities. The interactions are often visualized as lines or arrows.

A small plant that occurs in many different parts. It's genome is small compared to other plants, therefore it is widely used as a model organism for plants.

The proteome is all proteins of an organism at a given time point and under clearly specified conditions. The proteome differs with time and condition.

The term “cumulative process” here refers to taking an approach to research in which we try to gain insight not by interpreting strongly the results of one individual study at a time, but by integrating the results of several studies and broader research programs to gain an overview of the overall evidence.

Validity refers to the degree to which a certain result or conclusion in research corresponds with reality. There are different aspects of a study which can improve or decrease its validity.

For example, a study has high ecological validity if its results can be directly applied to real-life situations outside of the lab.

Innovation refers to coming up with new ideas for research, in other words to generating new hypotheses.

Verification refers to checking if a certain idea holds up in subsequent research, in other words to confirming hypotheses.

This refers to results of studies that cover a wide range of different topics, without going into detail on a specific area.

A preregistration is a document in which researchers compile information on how their study will be run and analyzed before it is conducted.

The document often contains information on which research question will be pursued, which hypothesis will be tested, how the data is collected and how the sample is generated, which data is excluded, and how the data will be prepared for analysis and ultimately analyzed.

Documenting in advance helps separate confirmatory hypothesis testing from exploratory research.

Here, upwardly biased means that the effect sizes reported in the literature are distorted to appear bigger than they really are.

When results of several analyses point in the same direction, we say the results are consistent.

For example, if we run three correlation analyses and find that enjoyment of hiking, self-assessed nature-lovingness, and number of times previously hiked all correlate positively with the probability that someone enjoys hiking holidays, we would say that the results are consistent.

If we found that the number of times previously hiked was negatively correlated with the probability that someone enjoys hiking holidays, the results would be less consistent.

A repeated measurement design assesses the same outcome variable at several points in time.

For example, let’s say we want to find out whether jogging before class improves students’ ability to follow a class. We might ask 20 students to jog before class and 20 students not to jog before class, and then after class ask them how easy it was for them to follow the class.

However, we might be unlucky and conduct our experiment on a day where a particularly difficult topic was covered in class. No-one, neither the joggers nor the non-joggers, could understand the lecture, so all our subjects report they absolutely couldn’t follow the class.

This problem could be ameliorated if we used a repeated measurement design instead. We would ask our 20 joggers and 20 non-joggers to either jog nor not-jog before class on 5 days in a row, and then ask them for their ability to follow the class each time. Now, we would have not only one point of measurement form each student, but 5 points of measurement of their ability to follow the class at several points in time.

Within-subjects manipulations refer to situations in experiments where the same person is assigned to multiple experimental conditions.

For example, let’s say we want to find out which of two different learning techniques (A and B) is more effective in helping students prepare for a vocabulary test. If we conducted a within-subjects manipulation, each student would apply both learning techniques.

Let’s say every student must first apply learning technique A, then take a vocabulary test, and then a week later for the next test apply learning technique B. We could now compare following which learning technique the students perform better.

In contrast, if we conducted a between-subjects manipulation, each student would only apply one learning technique. We would split the group of students, so that half of them use learning technique A and then take the vocabulary test, while the other students use learning technique B and then take the vocabulary test. Again, we could compare following which learning technique the students perform better.

A pre-analysis plan is a document that specifies which analyses will be run on the data, before these analyses are performed.

This plan can specify which variables and analyses will be used, how data will be prepared for analyses, and in which cases data will be excluded from analyses. This tool helps researchers specify and commit to the way they want to run the analyses in their study.

A confirmatory test is a statistical analysis of a certain relationship which had previously been hypothesized to hold. The test tries to find out if the hypothesis is supported by the data.

Publication bias is a type of distortion that can occur in making academic research public. When findings which show that a certain effect of interest was found to be statistically significant are more likely to be published than findings which show no evidence or even evidence against this effect, publication bias is present.

In this case, if you only read the published papers, you would find a lot of papers showing support for an effect, while studies which do not show support for the same effect are not published, giving you the impression that the effect was less disputed and more consistently found than it actually is.

A fixed effects model is a statistical model which accounts for individual differences in the data which cannot be measured by treating them as non-random, or “fixed” at the individual level.

As an example, let’s say we wanted to study if drinking coffee makes people are more likely to cross the street despite a red light. Our outcome variable of interest is how often each subject crosses a street despite a red light on a walk with 10 red traffic lights. The explanatory variable we manipulate for each participants is if they had a cup of coffee before the experiment or a glass of water (our control condition), and we would use this variable to try to explain ignoring red lights.

However, there are several other influences on ignoring red lights which we have not accounted for. Next to random and systematic error, we have also not accounted for individual characteristics of the person such as their previous experience with ignoring red lights. For instance, have the participants received a fine for this offense? If so, they might be less likely to walk across a red light in our experiment.

Using a fixed effects model makes it possible to account for these types of characteristics that rest within each individual participant. This, in turn, gives us a better estimate of the relationship between coffee drinking and crossing red lights, cleaned from other individual-level influences.

Spearman’s rank-order correlation is a specific type of correlation analysis, which assess the relationship between two variables with regard to its strength and direction.

A multivariate interaction effect is an effect that is the product of several variables working together and influencing each other.

For example, we might be interested in finding out how water temperature (warm: 38°C; cold: 15°C) affects the body temperature of humans and sea lions. We might find that humans, on average, have a higher body temperature than sea lions, and that body temperature is higher when the body is immersed into warm compared to cold water.

However, we might find that a human’s body temperature shows bigger differences between the warm and cold water conditions than the sea lion’s body temperature. Because sea lions have a substantive layer of protective fat, they body temperature does not change as much when water temperature changes, compared to humans.

Here, species and water temperature show an interaction effect on body temperature.

The sample size refers to the number of people from whom data is collected in a study.

Accumulated evidence refers to the results of several studies taken together.

There are two sources of error which can occur in scientific studies and distort their results.

Systematic errors are inaccuracies that can be reproduced. For example, imagine we wanted to measure a participant’s weight and we make our participant step on 5 different scales and measure her weight on each scale 10 times. Four scales report that she weighs of 74kg each time our participant steps on them. The last scale shows that she weighs 23kg each time the participant steps on it. We would say there is a systematic error involved in our study of her weight, because last scale consistently and erroneously reports her weight as too low.

Random errors are inaccuracies that occur because there are unknown influences in the environment. For example, imagine we wanted to measure a participant’s weight and had her step on the same scale 3 times in a row, within one minute. The first time, the scale reports 74,43kg, the second time 74,34kg, the third time 74,38kg. We don’t think that the participants’ weight has actually changed in this one minute, yet our measurement shows different results, which we would attribute to random errors.

A correlational test is a statistical method of analysis which asks if there is a relationship between two variables, and if this relationship is unlikely to be caused by chance.

For example, if we wonder if intelligence influences students’ biology exam performance, we could use a correlational test to see if more intelligent students get higher scores in a biology test. If we find this pattern, the test would also tell us if our result is extreme enough (if the correlation is strong enough) so that the probability that we make an error if we assume this relationship is true would be very low.

When studies are run, we aim at estimating values that are true for the population. However, we often cannot record data from everyone in the population, which is why we rely on drawing a random sample from the population. For example, while we may want to estimate the average difference in height between all men and all women in the world, we cannot possibly measure the height of all men and women in the world. Therefore, we draw a random sample of men and women. Let's say we collect data from 100 men and 100 women. The study reveals the average difference in height we find in this sample of 200 people, but it does not tell us what the true difference in height in the population of all men and women in the world is.

If we drew random samples of 200 people from the population of all men and women in the world again and again and again, and assessed their average difference in height each time, we would find a range of values. This range of values represents our estimates for the height difference in the population of all men and women in the world.

We refer to this range of values (interval) as the confidence interval. We want to make sure that it includes the true value of the variable we are estimating for the population sufficiently often. If we refer to a 95% Confidence Interval ('CI'), this means that our range of estimates from random samples contains the true value of the population in 95% of all cases.

If we calculate a CI from one study that we have run, it tells us the probability (e.g., 95%) that the CIs of repeated future samples would contain the true population value.

The term “cumulative process” here refers to taking an approach to research in which we try to gain insight not by interpreting strongly the results of one individual study at a time, but by integrating the results of several studies and broader research programs to gain an overview of the overall evidence.

Validity refers to the degree to which a certain result or conclusion in research corresponds with reality. There are different aspects of a study which can improve or decrease its validity. For example, a study has high ecological validity if its results can be directly applied to real-life situations outside of the lab.

This refers to results of studies that go into detail on a specific area, without covering a wide range of different topics.

This refers to results of studies that cover a wide range of different topics, without going into detail on a specific area.

Here, upwardly biased means that the effect sizes reported in the literature are distorted to appear bigger than they really are.

When results of several analyses point in the same direction, we say the results are consistent. For example, if we run three correlation analyses and find that enjoyment of hiking, self-assessed nature-lovingness, and number of times previously hiked all correlate positively with the probability that someone enjoys hiking holidays, we would say that the results are consistent. If we found that the number of times previously hiked was negatively correlated with the probability that someone enjoys hiking holidays, the results would be less consistent.

A pre-analysis plan is a document that specifies which analyses will be run on the data, before these analyses are performed. This plan can specify which variables and analyses will be used, how data will be prepared for analyses, and in which cases data will be excluded from analyses. This tool helps researchers specify and commit to the way they want to run the analyses in their study.

A confirmatory test is a statistical analysis of a certain relationship which had previously been hypothesized to hold. The test tries to find out if the hypothesis is supported by the data.

Publication bias is a type of distortion that can occur in making academic research public. When findings which show that a certain effect of interest was found to be statistically significant are more likely to be published than findings which show no evidence or even evidence against this effect, publication bias is present. In this case, if you only read the published papers, you would find a lot of papers showing support for an effect, while studies which do not show support for the same effect are not published, giving you the impression that the effect was less disputed and more consistently found than it actually is.

The population effect size is the estimate of the strength of the effect in the population of all possible subjects (e.g., all humans).

A goodness-of-fit test indicates how well a statistical model fits the data. It shows whether the difference between the observed data and the predicted, expected values is too big, or if the difference is small enough that we could assume the model captures reality sufficiently well. A goodness-of-fit χ2 (chi-squared) test is a specific type of goodness-of-fit tests.

Spearman’s rank-order correlation is a specific type of correlation analysis, which assess the relationship between two variables with regard to its strength and direction.

Standardizing refers to a procedure of preparing the data for analysis, in which all data are transformed such that their mean across the participants lies at 0 and that their standard deviation is 1.

The sample size refers to the number of people from whom data is collected in a study.

An R script is a document written in the programming language R which contains a number of commands that the computer should execute. For this study, all commands necessary to run the analyses reported here are compiled in such a script, which is available online, so that everyone who is interested in them can download the script and rerun all analyses on their own computer.

R is a computer program that can produce statistical analyses. To run an analysis, scientists tell this program what they want to do in a specific programming language which the computer speaks.

Accumulated evidence refers to the results of several studies taken together.

NFTs occur when tau proteins are deformed, clump together, and abnormally accumulate. These accumulations are toxic to neurons If these tangles happen in neurons, they can be observed using a microscope.

NFTs are always associated with brain disease and are seen in CTE, Alzheimer's disease, and other neurological conditions. NFTs cause neurodegeneration, neuron death, cognitive issues, dementia, and are ultimately fatal.

When they looked at the brains of people who suffered from TBI, the authors saw abnormalities ("neuropathologies") characteristic of CTE.

If the brain does not have enough time to recover after TBI, it might respond to further TBI with sudden and often fatal swelling.

Second impact syndrom most commonly affects teenagers and young adults. It is very rare and will often result in death.

Partial or total memory loss or impairment

Disorders caused by abnormal accumulation of phosphorylated tau protein in the brain.

If a protein is phosphorylated, it means that it has a phosphoryl group (PO₃^-) attached to it.

Foliaceous means "leafy." Foliaceous corals create thin layers of skeleton that somewhat resemble plant leaves.

The impact of a publication can be measured in several different ways. A common metric to assess the impact of a journal is the impact factor, a numerical indicator calculated based on the number of citations and published articles within a given year.

For this paper, the authors considered an article to be "high-impact" if it was within the top 1% most cited publications in its cohort.

For more information about assessing impact, see http://researchguides.uic.edu/if

Nonparametric statistical models are often used for data that are ranked.

A covariate is a variable that is used in a regression analysis. It is a variable that might be responsible for the outcome of a study, or that might be interfering.

Here, all of the additional variables added in each model were covariates (writing ability, gender, ethnicity, etc.)

A principal investigator is the holder of an independent grant administered by a university and the lead researcher for the grant project, usually in the sciences.

The phrase is also often used as a synonym for "head of the laboratory" or "research group leader."

The United States Patent and Trademark Office is an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce which stores, classifies, and disseminates information on patents and gives grant patents for the protection of inventions and to register trademarks.

PubMed is a database of medical and biological publications, created by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. It is the free version of the database MEDLINE.

The Research Project (R01) grant is a type of grant awarded by the National Institutes of Health that provides support for health-related research and development.

A physical interaction with social meaning.

The lowest level stimulation current that causes USVs.

A rat vocalization in response to fear or the presence of a threat.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in reward and reinforcement pathways in the brain.

Dopaminergic mechanisms use dopamine to promote repetition of and re-exposure to these positive things

Read more in Science News for Students: https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-what-dopamine

kHz is an abbreviation for kilohertz, which measures frequency in cycles per second. In this context it is measuring the frequency of a sound wave.

Humans can typically detect sound waves with frequencies up to 20 kHz, but that range declines with age.

Activation by multiple stimuli.

An outside factor that can also impact the dependent variable.

Neural representation indicates the region of the brain that is activated in response to some stimulus.

Tactile neural representation refers to the region (the somatosensory cortex) that is activated in response to some sort of touch.

Afferents are the neurons that send signals inward, back to the central nervous system and the brain.

Somatosensory afferents are the neurons that send signals to the brain in response to touch.

Animals of the same species.

Sensory neurons that specifically detect tickling.

Successive microscopic images of a tissue.

The group of animals that lay fertilized eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg in the mother. They include reptiles, birds, and mammals.

The usual or natural state.

An imaginary plane that divides a body into left and right halves.

A widely used stain in histology which dyes nuclei blue and plasma pink.

z, F, t and X2 test statistics are parameters that are calculated from a sample and compared with what is expected given the null hypothesis (that there is no effect in reality). They allow inferences on whether the data can be used to reject the null hypothesis and assume an effect is present.

Cohen's d is a measure for the size of an effect, used to report the standardized difference between two means. It is used to judge if an effect is small (d>0.20), medium (d>0.50) or large (d>0.80).

The t-test for dependent samples is a statistical procedure that is used on paired data to compare the means of two groups.

The central tendency of a distribution is captured by its central, or typical values. Central tendency is usually assessed with means, medians ("middle" value in the data) and modes (most frequent value in the data).

Fisher's method is a statistical procedure for conducting meta analyses, in which the results of all included studies are combined. The procedure examines the p-values of the individual studies, and allows inferences on whether the null hypothesis (that there are no effects) holds.

A two-tailed test looks for a hypothesized relationship in two directions, not just one. For example, if we compare the means of two groups, the null hypothesis would be that the means are not different from each other.

The alternative hypothesis for a two-tailed test would be that the means are different, regardless if the one is bigger or smaller than the other.

For a one-tailed test, one would formulate a more specific alternative hypothesis, for instance that the mean of the first group is bigger than the mean of the second group.

Meta-analyses integrate the results of multiple studies to draw overall conclusions on the evidence.

Covariation indicates how two variables change together, and is the basis needed to calculate a correlation.

A p-value is a statistical threshold for determining if a result is extreme enough to be considered compelling evidence, because it is unlikely that this result would show in the data if the effect did not exist in reality.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging is a procedure that detects the activity of areas in the brain by measuring blood flow.

It can be used to see what parts of the brain are involved in different processes.

Eye tracking machines are devices that can record eye-movements and make it possible to show what information people look at without asking them explicitly.

Autism is a mental condition that makes it difficult to communicate and form relationships with others. People with autism can also have difficulty using language or thinking about abstract concepts.

Macaques are a type of monkeys.

An F-test is a statistical procedure that assesses if the variance of two distributions are significantly different from each other.

A t-test is a statistical procedure that assesses if the means of two distributions are significantly different from each other.

Citation impact is determined by how frequently a paper is cited and built upon by subsequent literature.

Easy to deal with.

A priori means something was deduced or determined from theoretical considerations, before collecting data.

Cognitive psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that studies mental processes like perception, problem solving, attention or memory.

Social psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environment, and how their thoughts and behaviors are affected by others.

Selection bias here refers to systematic error in the way studies are included or excluded in the sample of studies which would be replicated. An unbiased selection would be truly random, such that the sample of studies used for replication would be representative of the population of studies available.

Transparency here means that the process in which a specific result was achieved is made as accessible for other researchers as possible, by explaining publicly, and in detail, everything that was done in a study to arrive at a specific result..

A false negative is a result that erroneously indicates no effect exists: although the data do not suggest that an effect exists, in reality, this effect does exist.

A false positive is a result that erroneously indicates an effect exists: although the data suggests an effect exists, in reality, the effect does not exist.

In statistics, moderation refers to the dependence of the relationship between two variables on a third variable.

For example, the positive relationship between socioeconomic status and health (the higher one's status, the better one's health) could be moderated by one's sense of control: people in low income groups with high sense of control might show health levels comparable with people from high-income groups, whereas people in low income groups with low sense of control have worse health (Lachman & Weaver, 1998).

Bias refers to a systematic error or a process that interferes with accurate results.

A confidence interval is the range of values in which the true value of the variable of interest would fall, if the experiment were to be repeated again and again. In the case of the 95% confidence interval, the true value would fall in this range in 95% of all cases. Confidence intervals are often referred to with the abbreviation "CI".

An effect is an observed phenomenon, where differences in one circumstance lead to observable differences in an outcome.

Recruitment refers to the successful addition of new individuals to a population.

Ecological succession is the predictable change in a community over time, usually referring to changes after a disturbance or initial colonization of a habitat.

Polychaetes are a diverse group of worms. Polychaetes are commonly found at the bottom of the ocean and are an important part of marine food webs.

The shape and features of the bottom of the ocean.

The demersal zone is the layer of water nearest to the bottom of the ocean. Plankton are tiny microscopic organisms that live in the water column.

Swimming together in a group. Schooling behavior provides benefits to individual fish, such as safety in numbers.

Motile organisms are organisms that can move around, such as shrimp or fish. Sessile organisms, like corals, do not move for the majority of their lives.

Encrusting animals form a thin layer (i.e. a "crust") over another hard surface.

Uneven, with some spots being affected more than others.

The substratum is the underlying layer of rock or sediment. This refers to the surface that the corals attach to.

As ocean waves move towards shallower waters, they eventually become unstable and break. A breaker zone is a region where waves begin breaking.

Taxonomy is the science of describing, identifying and classifying species. Taxonomic differences, in this context, are differences in the species present.

Development of the layers of the brain.

Caspases are endoproteases (a type of enzyme that breaks down proteins) that play a critical role in both inflammation and cell death.

The presence of caspase 3 and 7 can be used as a sign that cells are preparing to die.

A nucleus whose chromatin has condensed in preparation for apoptosis (programmed cell death)

A nucleus that has started to prepare for programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Cells located in the central nervous system which protect and support neurons in their function.

Glial cells differ from neurons since they do not participate in electrical signaling.

Smaller than what can be seen with a light microscope

In a controlled experimental environment.

A statistical test that is used to determine if two sets of data are significantly different from each other.

The "multiplicity of infection," which is the average number of virus particles that infect a cell.

Undifferentiated cells in the nervous system that have the potential to develop into any type of cell.

These are differentiated cells which have been reprogrammed into pluripotent ones. This means that they have the ability to develop into any type of cell.

The liquid that surrounds the fetus for its protection, keeping a constant temperature and environment.