In the story of Joseph, gender and heroism are connected through power, temptation, and morality. Joseph is presented as honorable because he resists the advances of Potiphar’s wife and remains loyal to his values. His heroic identity is connected with self-control, wisdom, and faith rather than physical strength or war. Potiphar’s wife, however, is often presented as dangerous and emotional, reflecting a common pattern in ancient stories where female desire becomes a source of conflict and punishment. This creates a strong contrast between the “pure” male hero and the woman who is blamed for temptation.

Different retellings of Joseph’s story focus on different aspects of the characters. Some versions portray Potiphar’s wife as manipulative and sinful, while others present her with more sympathy and complexity. The language used in religious and historical retellings reflects the values of the culture and time in which they were written. In many traditional versions, masculine virtue is connected with discipline and leadership, while female desire is treated as threatening to social and moral order. CC BY 4.0

In the story of Phaedra and Hippolytus, gender plays an important role in the construction of both desire and heroism. Hippolytus is presented as pure, disciplined, and devoted to Artemis, rejecting love and sexuality. His identity as a heroic male figure is connected with control, chastity, and distance from women. Phaedra, however, is controlled by forbidden desire and emotional suffering. This creates a contrast between masculine self-control and feminine passion that appears often in ancient literature. At the same time, Phaedra is also trapped by the expectations of honor and shame inside a patriarchal society.

Different versions of the myth present Phaedra differently. In some versions she appears manipulative and dangerous, while in Euripides’ version she becomes more tragic and human because Aphrodite curses her with desire. This changes how readers judge her actions. The language and focus of each retelling reflect the values of the culture and time in which the story was written or translated. Ancient and later versions often place blame on female desire, while male heroism remains connected to purity, honor, and public reputation. CC BY 4.0

In this version of Beowulf, heroism is again connected with fame, war, leadership, and family bloodline. The male figures are described as strong rulers and warriors, showing how masculinity in the poem is tied to honor and power. Hrothgar receives “glory of war,” which presents battle and military success as important qualities of the heroic male identity. At the same time, the queen is described mainly as a “helpmate,” showing how women are often placed in supportive roles around male heroes rather than being central figures themselves.

Francis Barton Gummere’s translation uses formal and poetic language such as “glory of war” and “chieftain of clansmen.” The elevated style creates a legendary and heroic atmosphere. Compared to the Morris and Wyatt translation, Gummere’s wording feels slightly clearer and more direct, but both translations glorify masculine power and warfare. The language also reflects older cultural values where men are associated with leadership and public honor, while women are connected with loyalty, marriage, and support inside the heroic society. CC BY 4.0

In this passage from Beowulf, heroism is connected with kingship, war, family lineage, and masculine strength. The men are described as “war-eager” and “leaders of war-hosts,” showing how male identity in the poem is built around battle, honor, and power. The heroic image is passed from father to son, making masculinity and leadership appear connected to bloodline and inheritance. At the same time, the queen is mainly introduced as a “bed-mate,” showing how women in the poem are often defined through marriage and their relationship to male rulers instead of through independent action.

The translation by William Morris and Alfred John Wyatt uses old-fashioned and poetic language such as “war-hosts” and “Scylding of battle.” This creates a strong heroic tone that glorifies masculinity and warfare. The elevated style reflects the values of both the medieval story and the nineteenth-century translators, who emphasized honor, nobility, and male power. The language makes the male heroes appear legendary, while female figures remain more limited and symbolic inside the heroic world of the poem. CC BY 4.0

In this passage from The Epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu learns the customs of human society through the guidance of the woman. Food and wine symbolize civilization and social life. Before this moment, Enkidu lives like a wild being outside human culture. The woman becomes the person who teaches him how to live among people. This shows how women in ancient epics are often connected with knowledge, civilization, and transformation, while male heroes are connected with strength and nature.

Compared to Langdon’s translation, Clay and Jastrow’s version uses simpler and more direct language such as “Eat food” and “Drink wine, the custom of the land.” The wording feels more human and easier to understand. At the same time, the woman’s role still mainly exists to guide the male hero into civilization, reflecting the patriarchal structure found in many ancient stories and older translations. CC BY 4.0

In this passage from The Epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu begins to leave behind his wild life and enter human society. Bread and beer symbolize civilization, culture, and the customs of the land. The woman becomes the person who teaches him these social rules. This shows how women in many ancient epics are connected with guidance, knowledge, and transformation, while men are often connected with physical strength and wilderness. Enkidu cannot fully become a hero until he learns how to live among people.

Langdon’s translation uses formal language such as “said unto Enkidu,” giving the passage a serious and almost sacred tone. The wording reflects the older literary style of the translator’s time. At the same time, the woman’s role mainly exists to help the male hero grow, which reflects the patriarchal structure common in many ancient stories and older translations. CC BY 4.0

In Anna Swanwick’s translation of The Persians, the two women again symbolize Greece and Persia, but the language creates a different emotional effect from Robert Potter’s version. Swanwick describes the women as “Faultless in beauty” and “sisters of one race,” which emphasizes their shared humanity before conflict divides them. This makes the later tension between Greece and Persia feel more tragic and political rather than simply heroic. The women represent entire nations, showing how female figures in ancient literature were often used symbolically to express ideas about identity, culture, and war. Their value is connected to beauty, nation, and emotion, while male figures remain connected to leadership and military action.

Compared to Potter’s translation, Swanwick’s language feels softer and more human. Potter’s version sounds more dramatic and elevated, while Swanwick focuses more on emotional and cultural division. Swanwick also uses the phrase “Barbaric land,” which reflects the Greek cultural separation between Greeks and non-Greeks. This wording reinforces the idea of “Us” versus “Them,” a major theme in ancient political literature. The translation also reflects the values of the nineteenth century, when translators often preserved cultural hierarchies and national identity inside classical texts. Through this language, the women become symbols of political struggle rather than independent voices, revealing the patriarchal structure behind the heroic narrative. CC BY 4.0

In this passage from The Persians, the two women symbolize Greece and Persia. Even though they are described as beautiful and powerful, they mainly exist to represent nations and political identity. The Greek woman wears “Doric garb,” while the Persian woman wears “Persian robes,” immediately creating a distinction between “Us” and “Them.” This shows how gender is used symbolically inside the text. The women are not presented as independent individuals, but as embodiments of their cultures and the future conflict between them. The passage also connects femininity with emotion, beauty, and national identity, while the male hero remains connected to action, leadership, and war.

Robert Potter’s translation uses elevated and dramatic language such as “peerless beauty” and “more than mortal majesty.” This creates a grand and heroic tone that reflects the literary style of Potter’s time. The women almost appear mythical instead of human. The translation romanticizes both figures and softens the political tension through poetic language. This reflects how older translations often idealized women as symbols of honor, beauty, or civilization rather than giving them their own agency or voice. The language also strengthens the national divide between Greece and Persia, presenting identity through visual and cultural difference. CC BY 4.0

In Ramayana, Rama is always the hero. He is the embodiment of the perfect man. Paley's take on the story recenters this view as she dives deep into the character of Sita. This allows the viewer to dissect what a hero really is. Her bravery and strength makes her a hero, but she isn't celebrated for it. In fact, it seems that life punishes her for it. We see her heroic acts in her decision to follow him into exile, in her resilience during captivity under Ravana, and in the strength it takes to face suspicion from the man she loved to the very end of her life. There is an apparent contradiction in the original tale. Sita must bear the weight of the many hardships she faces without a word while Rama is never really critiqued for throwing her away, even when he knew for a fact that she was completely faultless.

Gender Politics and the Hero in Ancient Literature © 2026 by Elshaddai Tefera is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

Sita Sings the Blues has an interesting mix of ancient and modern views of masculinity, as the source text Ramyana was very heavy in its views of gender roles. Sita is a damsel in distress character without a real voice even, mirroring how Nina Paley felt about her relationship, and she depends on Rama for everything, being made to serve him as his wife. Rama is meant to be an extremely masculine figure, who follows his duties perfectly and deals with hardships flawlessly. By way of his isolation due to exile, it makes him similar to modern heroes such as Spider-Man who is known for working alone. Both are tragic heroes who have been delt bad hands in life, Rama , through his spiteful stepmother and exile, and Spider-Man through his "Parker luck." Their love interests are also used similarly. When Sita is kidnapped, it gives Rama a reason to dominate the king Ravana via combat, to show that he is more of a man. Spider-Man's most infamous love interest, Gwen Stacy is also the victim of kidnapping although for different reasons. In the Spider-Man's case, instead of him proving himself as more of a man than the Green Goblin, fails. It becomes a great shame for the hero for over five decades. Both Gwen Stacy and Sita are victims because of the men they love and are used as weak spots for them. The difference with Spider-Man, that shows change in modern perspective of masculinity is that he not seen as weak for his failures nor is he any less popular. In fact, Spider-Man who was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko who was created with the intention of not being a stereotypically masculine superhero is one of the most, if not the most, popular modern heroes. While Rama is valued for being perfect, Spider-Man is valued for being flawed and human.

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In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is perceived as a hero due to his hypermasculine features, even when he is tyrannical because physical strength is what was valued in men. One could argue that the ideal man in any society would be one that is considered a hero, and in our modern concessions the best heroes cannot just be strong but must also be kind. Two of the most "ideal" heroes, Captain America and Superman, are men who along with being built like bodybuilders are also kind first and foremost, they stan for hope. This is how our modern conception has changed. Gilgamesh's tyranny is not seen as a good thing in the story, it is about he can change despite seemingly having everything. The difference is that many modern heroes start good. Still, other elements besides the strength stay the same, for example, these heroes also must have some kind of enhancement like Gilgamesh did. He was made by a goddess to be perfect just like Steve Rogers was made to be perfect by the super soldier serum, and Clark Kent was made to be superpowered by the sun.

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This piece, a drinking vessel in the shape of a fist, is a clear example of how masculinity was viewed in the ancient near east. It is sculped in a way that shows extraordinary physical strength with rough, detailed knuckles, insinuating to violence. The size of the hand further captures the masculine figure. The imagine on the cuff of the hand depicts the "Great King Tudhaliya" as he pours a ritual liquid in front of an alter for the storm god, with five of his followers witnessing, some of whom are playing instruments. Since the carving represents a king, the strength shown is now from a common man who gained his physique through physical labor but a trained noble or king who's strength would be used for battle and power rather than agriculture. It shows what these societies expected from their leaders -- from them to be hypermasculine powerful men who help strength for violence and defense. This also compares to our current expectations for leaders, it's traditionally standard for a man to be head of a household and for men to practice sternness, be athletic, and to control in some way. Men, historically, held almost every position of power within the US government and abled bodied people are valued more than than those with disabilities.

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The Persians differs from stories such as The Epic of Gilgamesh and Ramayana by the power that women in the story hold as well as how it critics the actions of Xerxes. Atossa is not a hopeless damsel in distress who watches her son through himself at death to avenge his father, she goes to the elders to use her political power to make her son pull back from Athens.

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Here, instead of Darius being represented sternly, he tries to be empathetic to his son's plight in Atossa's dream. This shows Darius having not only strength but intelligence, adding to what is seen as masculine. Aeschylus, living in Athens -- a hub of intellect -- respected Darius for having this trait despite their homes being sworn enemies. Treating Darius like a hero creates a dynamic character we still see in modern heroes. While Superman is revered for his strength and character, others like Batman and Mister Fantastic are admired for their intelligence. Masculinity being associated with intelligence is not a new concept either -- men are not expected to be mindless oafs -- schools were opened only for men for most of history with women being barred off from the life of a scholar. Aeschylus' unique perspective as an Athenian would value educated and competent minds.

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Xerxes is insulted for his violence rather than praised at they are actions taken without proper thought. Unlike Gilgamesh who is praised for his strength no matter how said strength is being used, showing the differences in a man's role -- particularly a ruling man. In ancient Persia it was more valued to rule with compassion rather than fear and the eradication of your enemies, Xerxes goes against this.

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Draupadi's representation of masculinity continues with physical strength, with violence through display of competent weapon use. Their violence is used to win over women, as if their objects, just as it's used to win wars. Violence ties in to how men have been expected to be superior, to be demanding as violence is used to protect that power. With the modern superhero, weapons are often numerous, although, with modern standards of the hero those with lethal weapons are regarded as anti-heroes. The heroes of the modern age have morals against killing, compassion now being valued along with strength. Even with superheroes who maintain a dark demeanor, stoic and emotionless, such as Daredevil and Batman can maintain non-lethality making them dynamic characters in the eyes of masculinity. Despite their masculinity, they do not kill, they care for others. and they give hope while also being powerful both in status and physical strength.

Women, nonparticipants in masculinity, are just as important to the modern hero as they were to the ancient, and often in the same manner. They are used as motivation for the masculine protagonist, just as Draupadi is used here to make the Five Pandavas show off their masculinity. Daredevil has had a plethora of love interests, but they differ from this damsel in distress stereotype as they are all women with enough power to protect themselves. Karen Page is a journalist who often takes on controversial stories that land her in trouble and Elektra Natchios went through the same combat training as the man himself as well as having more social status and wealth than him. This has in no way been the standard for modern hero's love interests but it certainly shows a change in how women are viewed. One of the most famous examples of how woman can be used to boaster the performance of heroic men is in Green Lantern #54 (1994) where the hero protagonist find his love interest, Alexandra DeWitt, murdered and stuffed in a fridge. This plotline is used simply for the hero to be called into action against the villain who committed such a heinous act. From this came the term "women in refrigerators", a phenomenon where women are disproportionately made to be the victims of violence in media, often for the sake of giving the male protagonist as call to action.

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Wikipedia contributors. "Women in refrigerators." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 28 Mar. 2026. Web. 4 May. 2026.

I think it’s interesting how this quote sets up Draupadi as both divine and "earthy" at the same time. In terms of Religious Politics, this version focuses on her "steely will" as a virtue rather than just seeing her as a victim of fate. She uses her intelligence to actually question the leaders and the law, which turns her personal struggle into a direct critique of the "condemned deeds" of the men in power. It shows that her heroism comes from her refusal to stay silent in a society that wasn't exactly kind to women.

The linguistic value is seen in the contrast between "fire" and "earthy." Older translations usually focus on the "fire" part to keep her as this distant, untouchable goddess, but this scribe uses "earthy" to make her feel more human and real. This shift in language reflects a modern mentality that tries to break away from that typical patriarchal mindset where female characters are just symbols. By calling her a "total woman," the translator is essentially reclaiming her agency and making an ancient religious text feel relevant to our time.

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Draupadi: The Queen of the Pandavas. Edited by Anant Pai, retold by Kamala Chandrakant, illustrated by Pratap Mulick, no. 72, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 1986, p. 2.

One of the most important parts to Sita's story in the Ramayana is that Sita is kidnapped by Ravana and when Rama rescues her she must prove herself to still be pure via trial of fire. It's insinuated that Ravana has raped Sita and now she is sexually sullied. Despite the nonconsensual nature Rama still accuses Sita of being dirty, refusing to comfort her after a traumatic event. With the modern hero, this idea is not completely discarded. Jessica Jones, one of the more prominent woman heroes of modern comics, has a similar traumatic history to Sita. She was kidnapped under mind control and forced to do sexual as well as violent acts for a man named Zebediah Killgrave or Purple Man due to his purple skin. In the 2019 comic. Jessica Jones: Purple Daughter by Kelley Thompson, Jones is accused of cheating on her husband, Luke Cage, when their daughter's skin turns purple. Despite Jones' trauma, Cage fails to support her in the ways that she needs from her partner just as Rama had failed Sita. Cage does eventually come to be a supporting figure, more so scared for his family than forcing his wife to walk through fire. Still, the theme of women being victim blamed for assault persists with the modern hero, speaking to a larger societal issue of how women are treated and how toxic forms of masculinity can influence ones actions.

Matter, Brittany. “‘Jessica Jones: Purple Daughter’: The Creators on How Jessica’s Past Continues to Haunt Her.” Marvel, Marvel Entertainment, 25 Jan. 2019, www.marvel.com/articles/comics/jessica-jones-purple-daughter-the-creators-on-how-jessica-s-past-continues-to-haunt-her.

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In this film, religious values are used to show the difference between "traditional duty" and "personal fairness." In the original Ramayana, Rama’s choice to kick Sita out is seen as a virtue because he is putting his reputation as a king first. However, this version reframes that virtue as a condemned act of abandonment. It shows how religious politics can sometimes be used to justify hurting women in the name of purity or tradition.

A big high point is the way the shadow puppets talk. They don't use fancy religious language. They use everyday language as if they are gossiping about the gods. This reflects a modern mindset that questions authority rather than just blindly following. By using simple, modern talk, the film strips away the old patriarchal seriousness and makes the story feel like something that could happen to anyone today.

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Sita Sings the Blues. Directed by Nina Paley, Channel 13 / WNET, 2008. SitaSingsTheBlues.com, http://www.sitasingstheblues.com/watch.html.