I removed one participant from the cluster analysis who sorted allthe cards, but in such a way as to skew the results. With a sharp wit, this participantcreated only two categories: “Byproducts of nuclear decay,” which containedonly one card,radiation; and “What an academic thinks of when he or shemisinterprets design as the synthesis of a set of design principles,” which con-tained all of the remaining cards. I did, however, include this participant’ssurvey responses, as they reflected an attitude toward design that favored artisticsensibility over using more formal methods such as design principles or designresearch. I address this attitude more fully in the conclusion to this article.

As I mentioned, Optimal Sort allowed me to survey participants before andafter the card sorting task (see Figure 3). In addition, the software includes asingle default comment field directly below the card sorting area, which userscan fill in with general comments (see the bottom of Figure 2)

The primary advantage of this online approach was quick and efficient accessto participants. However, there were two disadvantages. First, in a face-to-facecard sorting exercise, the researcher often observes the participant as he or shesorts the cards and uses the talk-aloud protocol to gather further informationabout participants’ thinking during the exercise. Because I would not attend thecard sorting, this kind of observation was not possible. Second, I would havelittle control over who agreed to participate. The possibility for spam is alwayspresent with online media

By design educators, I mean professional educators who teach design eitheras a primary focus or as a part of their primary focus. By practicing designers,I mean people who do design as part of their professional work. By designstudents, I mean people currently studying to become practicing designers ordesign educator

Rather than arranging the design principles accordingmy own sensibilities or some separate theory

These figuressuggest that despite the 198 principles in the raw list, for most authors a relativelysmall handful of principles, perhaps 5-7, serves most purposes

Include as a design principle whatever a text calls a design principle orsomething similar.• Include as a design principle any principle labeled as such in other texts,even if the author does not explicitly call it a “design principle.

This study took the form of two stages: a quantitative literature review thatcatalogued and analyzed visual design principles mentioned in books and web-sites on design; and a card sorting exercise with survey questions

Designers, in fact, often talk about the need to “break the rules”on occasion to bring attention or interest to a design. Some designers even denyusing design principles at all, arguing that they rely on instinct, artistic sensi-bilities, or a “good eye.

What is a design principle?•How do design principles relate to each other?•How and when do designers use design principles, particularly in these daysof user-centered, research-driven design?

Beginningwith the founding of the Design Research Society in 1966,

Many books, designers, and design educators talk about visual design prin-ciples such as balance, contrast, and alignment, but with little consistency