Classic research on the self in psychology empirically tested James’ theorized “self as known” through self-schemata (Markus, 1977) and self-complexity (Linville, 1985), and his “self as knower” through self-regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1981; Mishel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989) and self-affirmation (Steele, 1988).