The mathematical space within an ecological unit.

A component of biodiversity concerning range in communities and ecosystems performed by organisms (the impact).

All the populations, species, and communities in a defined area.

Refers to the number of species.

Unimodal distribution is a statistical distribution with one clear peak.

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and the how the processes are influenced by seasonal and interannual differences in climate and habitat factors.

When an insect of animal undergoes a period of suspended development.

+/- 5% of actual value.

A test which is used in statistical analysis in which there are many comparison test being practiced. Even if the statistical data has no significance, the Bonferroni tests will allow significance to emerge in the data due to multiple testing.

Bonferroni correction is an adjustment made to P values when several dependent or independent statistical tests are being performed at the same time on a single data set. A Bonferroni correction is performed by dividing the critical P value (α) by the number of comparisons being made.

Post hoc tests are run to confirm where differences in means are when using multiple groups. They are only run after an ANOVA test confirms that there are statistically significant differences between the groups.

ANOVA is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the differences between group means.

Group of genes in the organism that was inherited from a single parent.

The Monte Carlo method is a tool used in statistics which can be applied to scientific research in which a distribution of the possible outcomes in a data set can be produced.

Since the same experiment can be repeated many times we must have outcomes that show the probabilities of different outcome happening.

A program developed by the Pritchord lab at Stanford uses genotype data to investigate population structure. Its uses include discovering distinct populations, assigning individuals to populations, studying hybrid zones, identifying migrants and mixed individuals, and estimating population allele frequencies.

Biomass: Total mass of an organism or the mass of the organism in a a specific area.

The weight was taken when the plant was dry for the simple reason that different species can hold different amounts of water. In order to obtain a precise measurement and compare the different species, the plant had to be dried.

To soften or the use of liquids to soften.

The field laboratory is a branch of the University of Florida's Everglade Experiment Station. The objective of which is to conduct research on vegetables and forage crops on the sandy soils of lower east Florida.

Read more about the laboratory at https://www.ars.usda.gov/southeast-area/fort-lauderdale-fl/iprl/docs/history-of-the-iprl/

Exocarp: The thin outer layer that covers the fruit.

An example of an exocarp would be the thin layer located on the outside of a grape or apple.

Mettler balance is a laboratory balance used to measure small masses to the sub milligram range. It can measure from .1 mg to .0001 mg depending on the model.

Fleshy middle layer of the fruit.

The outer layer of the pericarp of the fruit. The skin of the fruit.

Phenolic compounds are a class of plant secondary metabolites. These include a range of compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and other substances. They are responsible for fruit color.

A perennial is a plant that lives for two or more years. Most perennials flower multiple times during their life cycle.

Dioecious refers to a plant or animal that has male and female reproductive organs in separate individuals.

Intraspecific hybridization occurs when the hybrid is born from parents of the same species that belong to different populations or breeds.

Genetic variation is variation in the alleles of genes both within and among populations.

This variation is brought about through mutations.

Founding populations of invasive species are often small, so they experience the founders effect. The founders effect is a loss of a genetic variation due to a smaller population size.

An ancestor or parent.

Folate is a B vitamin, and is important for many aspects of health including the prevention of anemia and certain birth defects.

Folate can be broken down by UV radiation (sun exposure), leading to lower levels in people with high UV exposure.

The production of a pigment called melanin. Melanin gives skin and hair its color.

Many factors can contribute to differences between individuals of the same species. Some differences are due to differences in DNA; these are referred to as the "genetic basis" for variation.

A process by which organisms that are not closely related evolve similar traits independently.

A plant with a grass-like physical structure and long blade-like leaves.

Small, sometimes microscopic, animal-like organisms that exist in bodies of water. Can sometimes be made up of the larvae or immature forms of larger animals.

An invertebrate animal in the class Arachnida that includes spiders and scorpions, in this experiment the species observed was Cybaeus reticulates.

A process by which a single gene can encode multiple proteins.

RNA splicing is the removal of introns from the transcript made from a gene, leaving only the exons to be expressed. In alternative splicing, exons are excluded, introns are included, or different junctions are used between the introns and exons, leading to proteins with a different amino acid sequence.

The frequency of the second most common allele in a population for a given locus.

Addition or subtraction of one or more nucleotides in a DNA sequence.

An ecological effect caused by the addition or removal of predators with changes to both the populations of predators and prey. The trophic cascade effect can either be top-down (predator to prey) or down-up (prey to predator). In a simplified food chain, if there is an increase (or decrease) in top predators then there would be a decrease (or increase) in herbivore prey and an increase (or decrease) in plant prey communities.

Compound heterozygotes have two different mutated alleles at the same genetic locus.

A measure of the correlation of two continuous variables.

Regions of chromatin that are highly sensitive to cutting by DNase I, an enzyme that cleaves DNA at many locations in the genome.

Genomic regions are more sensitive to DNase I cleavage if their chromatin has lost its condensed structure, indicating that these regions would also be available for binding by transcription factors and subsequent transcription. Therefore, DNase I hypersensitive sites are associated with regions of the genome that control transcription.

The ancestral allele is the allele that was carried by the common ancestor of the populations.

mRNA stands for messenger ribonucleic acid. mRNA is made based on the sequence of DNA that encodes it, and specifies the amino acid sequence that will be used by the ribosome to make a protein product.

A study is referred to as high-powered, if the size of the sample from which data is collected is large enough that it becomes highly probable (at least 80% probability) that an effect of interest that exists in the population would actually be found in this data.

For example, let’s say we were interested in finding out whether cupcake consumption increases well-being. Because we cannot ask every person on the planet to please report their well-being, eat a cupcake, and then report their well-being again, we have to restrict our investigation to a certain sample of people.

To be in balance, the solar heat reaching the Earth must be balanced by the amount of heat the Earth emits into space; what comes in is balanced by what goes out.

For more information, check out this NASA video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DOAqECd70Ww&t=22s

Scientists measure distances in meters and not miles, where 1 meter is roughly 3 feet and 1000 meters is about 0.6 miles.

The average depth of the ocean is about 3,688 meters (12,100 ft), and reaches the deepest depth of 10,994 meters (6.831 mi) in the Mariana Trench in the West Pacific Ocean.

Check out this Tech Insider video about how deep the ocean really is: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UwVNkfCov1k

A joule is a derived unit of energy that is equal to the energy transferred to (or work done on) an object. One joule can be thought of as the work required to produce one watt of power for one second.

There are 5 ocean basins: the Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Southern Ocean. These oceans are all connected and can be defined as a global or world ocean.

The average deviation from an expected value.

Density measures the degree of compactness of a substance. The density of seawater depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. A high salt content and cold temperatures make seawater more dense.

Measured or evaluated on a yearly basis or from one year to the next.

To function properly, cells are constantly creating, recycling, and transporting proteins. Interruptions in this process can be a cause of disease.

Neurons express special proteins that allow them to adhere to each other and to other cell types. The ability to bind to each other is important for neurons' ability to communicate properly.

The release of glutamate, a common neurotransmitter.

A mutation that changes a codon that would normally correspond to an amino acid to a stop codon.

"Gene dosage" refers to the number of copies of a gene in a particular genotype. A gene is dosage-dependent if a certain number of copies is necessary for proper function.

Although there are many factors that influence gene expression, in general more copies of a gene will result in more protein product (either directly from the gene or as a result of regulatory mechanisms).

A stop codon (or termination codon) is a series of three nucleotides that stops the translation process.

It works by binding special proteins called "release factors." When these release factors reach the ribosome (the site of protein translation), they cause the new amino acid chain to separate from the ribosome, stopping translation.

The term "pro-band" is used to refer to the patient being studied in biomedical research, especially research on genetics.

PCDH10 is a potential tumor suppressor protein. Abnormalities in PCDH10 have been found in many human tumor cells.

A "forward" screen is used to identify the mutation(s) that leads to a given phenotype.

A "reverse" screen is used to identify the resulting phenotype from a given mutation.

The authors propose renaming c3orf58 to deleted in autism-1 (DIA1) because they found evidence that it was causative of autism in patient AU-3101.

Genes are commonly renamed from "generic" names such as c3orf58 to more specific names that provide information about their function. Because there is no formal regulation of gene names, many genes have misleading names or multiple names.

The myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) transcription factor is important to cell differentiation and embryonic development.

A biological pathway, found in many eukaryotes, in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression. This is usually caused by the destruction of certain mRNA molecules.

This pathway is used by researchers to increase or decrease the activity of genes of interest.

Genes that are "activated" by neural activity will typically be transcribed more following a depolarization event (i.e., an action potential).

The portion of a cell's DNA that is transcribed. The transcriptome can be identified by looking at all of the mRNA in a cell.

To increase the reliability of the results, the researchers may have removed information identifying samples as "experimental" or "control." This can decrease bias in the analysis of results.

The process of "reading" DNA to create mRNA, which then exits the cell nucleus to eventually be translated into a protein. This is the first step in protein synthesis.

The deletion is homozygous (present on both chromosomes) in the boy, but present on only one chromosome from each parent.

Thus, the boy inherited the deletion from both parents.

A variation of a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence. When less than 1% of a population carries the nucleotide at this position, this variation is classified as a SNP. Some SNPs are associated with certain diseases.

Because first cousins share a larger portion of their genome than two unrelated individuals, there is a higher chance that a child will inherit disease-causing mutations.

A technique used to determine how a trait is inherited, and if it is inherited in a standard (Mendelian) way.

Refers to the autosomes, or the 22 numbered chromosomes (which do not include the sex chromosomes).

Refers to both the family tree and the ancestry of the subjects. In biology, pedigrees are represented with a standard set of symbols, such as those below:

Here, "syndromic" means common varieties of autism.

Phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated, deleted, or inverted. It has been shown that CNVs at specific locations increase the risk to develop autism.

A mutation is de novo when it appears for the first time in an individual, rather than being inherited.

It is usually the result of a mutation in the germ line (the cells that produce sperm and eggs) of one of the parents, or a mutation that arises in the fertilized egg itself.

It is also known as a new mutation.

A mental health disorder that is caused by the nervous system.

Disorders like autism that can result from many different genetic anomalies.

Autism is difficult to characterize not only because there are many different genetic causes, but also because autism sometimes results when several otherwise benign mutations come together in the genome of an individual.

A method for mapping genes involved in rare, recessive disorders. It is used in inbred populations (populations where many individuals are related to each other). Because these populations are very highly related, individuals will share large areas of their chromosomes in areas surrounding target genes.

Synapses (the electric signals that transfer information in the nervous system) regulate the expression of some genes.

Among the genes regulated by neuronal activity are those that are involved in learning.

Locus (pl. Loci.) : The locus of a gene is its physical location on a specific chromosome.

"Mapping" a locus means finding out where it is physically located on a chromosome.

Example: location of the genes BRCA 1 and BRCA 2:

Autism-spectrum disorders (ASD), sometimes referred to collectively as "autism," are a family of developmental disorders that have different symptoms and intensities.

Non-parametric (not assuming a normal distribution) statistical test that is used to compare two sample means that come from the same population, and used to test whether two sample means are equal or not. The authors conducted the Mann-Whitney test post hoc (after the Kruskal-Wallis test) in order to compare the groups (to investigate which groups significantly differ) but with corrections to control for inflation of type I error (false positive – determining differences in the dataset when there actually is none).

A plant that is not formally a part of the family Asclepiadaceae.

Diversity describes the number of species, while abundance describes how many individuals of each species.

A type of flower that has a long, thin, tube-like structure. The tube-like structure is formed by the pedals and often separate the mouth into a flared shape.

Data or information that is specific to both a time and location. In this case, the "spacio-" aspect is the set of 0.5° x 0.5° grid points across the Mediterranean land mass. The "-temporal" aspect is the specific time period examined— either in the past or future.

Evolutionary history that traces the relationship between organisms.

A mechanism plants use to ensure their survival.

The plant produces one or more biochemicals that affect neighboring competitors in their growth and/or reproduction.

Non-living physical and chemical components that affect living organisms and the surrounding ecosystem.

a plant variety that has been produced in cultivation by selective breeding

a type of micro-irrigation that has the potential to save water and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either from above the soil surface or buried below the surface

the period of time each day during which an organism receives illumination; day length.

the ratio of the light energy falling on a body to that transmitted through it.

a green pigment, present in all green plants and in cyanobacteria, responsible for the absorption of light to provide energy for photosynthesis. Its molecule contains a magnesium atom held in a porphyrin ring

Dendranthema·grandiflorum is a perennial species from the Asteraceae family. Can grow up to 30-90 centimeters high and wide

The region of space around the sun that is attractive to other massive bodies (i.e., the planets).

Predictions.

Here, prognoses is used to mean predictions of how a particular species will respond to a change in the climate of the area where it lives.

Here, novel refers to an ecosystem that is humanmade and doesn't occur naturally.

A measurement of the strength of a linear correlation (relationship) between two variables.

A coefficient value close to +1 indicates a strong positive linear correlation: When one variable increases, the other also increases. A value of 0 indicates no linear correlation.

The balance of some ecosystems may be upset by changes in temperature.

Extreme temperatures may limit survival of some species, such as plants which cannot tolerate freezing temperatures or animals which experience heat stress at high temperatures.

Changes in the timing of seasonal temperature may affect life cycles; for example, early springlike temperatures can change the timing of reproduction or migration.

A complex, interacting community of living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) and nonliving matter and energy.

Ecosystems can be very different in complexity and size. Some are small, like a decaying log or a home aquarium. Examples of large ecosystems are deserts, lakes, and rainforests.

One of the Prince Edward Islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean, between Africa and Antarctica.

A measure of how far north or south a point on Earth is, recorded in degrees. The latitude of the Equator is 0°.

Compared to lower latitudes, higher latitudes are farther from the Equator and tend to experience lower average temperatures and more seasonal climate variability.

Species that can thrive only in very specific environments which contain resources such as certain types of food or shelter.

This is in contrast to habitat generalists, species which can thrive in a variety of environments, making use of a variety of different resources.

Organisms that cannot move on their own, including most plants and some animals.

Although external forces can move these organisms, as when wind disperses seeds, it will be difficult for them to shift their range if new suitable habitat is too far away.

Relating to physiology, which is the study of how living systems work and the processes that keep a living organism alive.

Related to a microclimate, which is the distinctive climate of a small area.

For example, a large boulder could create two microclimates: one on the side that gets more sun and is exposed to the wind, and the other on the side of the boulder that is mostly sheltered from the sun and wind. The two microclimates may contain different living organisms which prefer one or the other.

Related to topography, which describes the physical surface features of an area, such as the steepness of a slope.

Living organisms may prefer certain types of topography.

The symbol is the Greek letter chi (pronounced "ki", as in kite).

Chi-squared is part of the chi-square goodness-of-fit test. Its purpose here is to measure how well a model describes a set of data.

Responding less than would be expected if climate change were the only factor.

In this context, lagging means having a range shift that is less than expected based on the temperature change.

A temperature gradient quantifies how temperature changes through space (spatial) or time (temporal).

Here the authors refer to a spatial gradient: how the annual average temperature changes with position (latitude or elevation). The gradient is measured in degrees Celsius per distance (kilometers or meters).

The balance of some ecosystems may be upset by changes in water balance.

Some organisms may not survive if rainfall or humidity is either too high or too low. Examples of moisture-limited ecosystems include deserts and rainforests.

The temperate and tropical zones are two of the three major climate zones on Earth.

See a map of the major climate zones here: climate zone map

The p-value (P) is a measure of statistical significance, or how unlikely it is that the data are a result of random chance.

When a statistical test compares two situations, a small p-value indicates a very small probability that the situations are the same. We can then conclude that the situations are significantly different.

A one-sample t test is a statistical test that compares the mean of a sample set to a particular value. Its purpose is to determine if the sample set could have come from a larger group of data (a population) with that particular mean value.

In statistics, N is the number of data points in a group.

Standard error (SE) is a measure of variability within a set of data. The SE value is used in the calculation of statistical tests, such as the one-sample t test.

Living organisms grouped together because they share certain characteristics.

Taxonomic groups can range from very general, such as all plants, to very specific, such as a particular species of wasp.

A change in either the average climate of an area or the amount of climate variability, measured over a period of time.

In this paper, the authors use the change in annual average temperature as a measure of climate change.

A measure of the variety of individuals, species, and ecosystems in an environment.

Maintaining biodiversity is important because Earth's natural systems are highly interconnected. Losing species or altering ecosystems can have widespread consequences.

A change in location of the boundaries of a species' range.

In this paper, the ranges are defined by upper and lower boundaries of either latitude or elevation. A range shift can occur at either boundary or both.

In statistics, the median is the middle value in a group of data points. Half of the data points are less than the median, and half are greater than the median.

A statistical analysis of data combined from multiple scientific studies.

Combining data from many different studies can increase the statistical power of the results, reveal new patterns in the data, and help to minimize effects of error or bias in individual studies.

A measure of the height of a point on Earth above sea level.

Higher elevations, like mountains, tend to experience lower average temperatures than lower elevations.

Plants and animals that live most or all of their lives on land.

The area where a species is found.

The authors use the terms range, distribution, and geographic distribution interchangeably in this paper.

The junction between the leaf and the stem blade.

Unit of biological classifications of an organism. This can be a group of rank such as, species, family or class.

A collection of preserved plant specimen used for specific scientific study.

A characteristic that is shared within species but not present within their ancestors.

The influence of humans in the modification of nature.

The division of large habitats into smaller patches, resulting in discontinuities within the organisms preferred habitat.

This phenomena results in the degradation of an ecosystem.

A flower that contains sex organs of both the male and female. These organs are known as the carpellate (produces ovules) for females and staminate (produces pollen) for males.

In angiosperms (flower-producing plant), when a plant bares fruit.

In a flowering plant, it is a cluster of flowers either on a main branch or system of branches.

The study of how humans within a cultures use plants as folk remedy.

To move from one place to another.

An event/events that limit genetic variation in a population and result in populations that can lead to genetic drift.

A model used to measure whether a population has reached equilibrium, meaning it stopped evolving.

An informal phylogenetic tree that represents clusters of species with similar characteristics.

Secondary compounds that are only present after a stimulus occurs.

For instance, one stimulus could be leaf damage caused by herbivory.

Gas Chromatography: Used to separate and analyze compounds that do not decompose. Measures the content of multiple components in a sample.

Mass Spectroscopy: Measures the characteristics of individual molecules. This is done by converting the molecules into ions so they can be manipulated by magnetic and electrical fields.

GC-MS is a machine that does both.

The factors that dictate the presence and amount of a species within a community.

Species or populations that reside in the same geographic area.

Differences with species resulting from reproductive barriers.

The most amount two species can share their living environments and still coexist.

Level in the food chain an organism belongs to in an ecosystem. For instance, plants that are primary producers belong to the first trophic level.

Of related nature or origin. Of the same genus.

A collection of plants or organisms in a specific geographical area that exist at a specific time.

Compounds that play a role in a plant's ecological interaction with its environment.

For example, secondary compounds may function in protection against herbivores and/or pollinator attractants

Fluorescent molecule that binds to an antibody, allowing researchers to see if a protein is present and, if so, where it is.

Red fluorescent dye (or fluorochrome) used to visualize cellular components such as actin.

Short sequence of a protein, 14 amino acid residues in length.

A software program used to determine how related two species, genes, etc. are.

A negative control containing all the reagents of the PCR reaction, except the reverse-transcriptase. This kind of control is used to ensure that the reagent mixture is not contaminated.

Tissues that are able to bend light.

Recurring patterns of a sequence of DNA or amino acids. For example, opsins contain seven transmembrane helices.

Initiates.

Pouches or bulges in tissues.

Structure that controls the amount of light entering the eye.

A layer of reflective tissue between the choroid and retina.

Layer of tissue beneath the retina that supplies nutrients and oxygen to the retina.

A group of photoreceptive cells that form a simple photoreceptive organ in some species of cephalopods (the class that includes squid and octopuses).

Cells located somewhere other than the eye that are able to convert photons of light into chemical signal.

Sequences or series of proteins responsible for generating the signals involved in vision.

A technique that uses secondary antibodies bound to a fluorescent chemical to identify the presence of specific proteins.

The secondary antibodies bind to primary antibodies, which identify the protein of interest. The presence of the protein of interest can be detected by looking at the cells under a fluorescent microscope.

A test that measures how retinal cells respond to a light stimulus. Electroretinography is usually used to diagnose problems in the human eye, but it also has other uses.

Factors that do not allow amplification to occur.

Primers are sequences where genetic material starts to replicates. Reverse primers are those that replicate from the 3' to 5' end of the DNA strand.

Primers are DNA sequences where genetic material starts to replicate. Forward primers are those that replicate from the 5' to 3' end of the DNA strand.

A machine that does PCR in real time.

The property of absorbing light of short wavelength and emitting light of longer wavelength.

Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol.

Tool for grinding.

The rupture or disintegration.

Periods of light and dark cycles.

Solution for growing marine algae.

An instrument that allows for identification of different chemicals by looking at their mass to charge ratio.

Dinoflagellates that interact and live around other organisms such as a coral.

A technique that detects mutations, and differences in DNA samples.

To increase the amount of genetic material (DNA) once again.

Solvent that alters the qualities of what is being worked with. This usually causes a destruction of it's properties.

The ribosomal DNA with the internal transcribed spacer, specifically region 2. This sequence of the gene varies between species.

A spacer DNA (region of noncoding DNA in genes) between the small subunit ribosomal RNA and the large subunit ribosomal RNA.

A technique that separates DNA fragments.

A technique that can detect variations in homologous DNA sequences.

RFLP has been used to analyze patterns of DNA cleavage after restriction enzyme treatment. It has also been used to detect mRNA modified bases. The goal of this experiment was to present the ability of RFLP to show the different ptRMs at specific sites of several tRNAs.

A species that is found within a whole country, or continent.

Group of organisms that is said to have come from a common ancestor.

A group that contains endosymbiotic dinoflagellates. They typically use animals such as corals and anemones as hosts.

Marine photosynthetic organisms that have two flagella (long slender membrane that allows organism to swim).

Stony or hard coral.

Synthetic (lab-made) sugars.

The resistance of an electric circuit towards a current due to a voltage change.

'Derma" refers to skin and in this case, "trans" means through; so transdermal means the electroreceptors are being emitted through the skin of the fish.

A structure resembling a cerebellum in electric fish that contains secondary sensory neurons to which sensory signals detected by electroreceptors are relayed.

There are several layers of tuff that can be distinguished by color—one on top of the other.

The term mottles is used to identify differences in color patterns in a soil profile. Iron and manganese (Fe/Mn) oxides color the soil.