A 3D geometric figure whose planes or sections consist of ellipses or circles.

Electric field vectors (EOD maps) can help determine the size, position, shape, distance, and other physical features of a small object, such as an electric fish, by creating electric images with features that visually represent and correspond to each characteristic of the object in question.

Sensory reafference consists of signals received by a sensory region when the corresponding sensory organ is moved or stimulated.

Made up of multiple stages, phases, or steps.

The spread of the signals that are emitted by the electric organs within the organism.

Towards the direction of the dorsal and ventral regions of a fish's body (above and below, respectively).

The fish that were kept in the lab were curarized (given a drug so their muscles could relax and body) and respirated (to make sure the animals were getting enough oxygen to breath).

The resistance of an electric circuit to an opposing or alternating current.

Resembling an ampulla which is a dilated piece of a canal or duct.

A predator that is able to use to receptors in their electric organs to sense the environment around them. The electrorecptors in the organism are located in a dilated part of a canal or duct.

This phrase means that the front-facing side of the organism does not have a supply of nerves. "Non" - not , "innervated"- to supply with nerves.

This means to spread toward the tail or posterior section of the body.

A cycle, object or process that has two phases.

The anatomical term that refers to the area of the body that located near the oral and nasal region.

Spatio means having to do with space, temporal means time, so together this word means having to do with space and time. In this context the EOD potentials have both spatial extension and a time-related duration.

The anatomical position that relates to the underside or the abdominal part of an organism.

Dipoles are equal magnetic positive and negative charges separated by a distance. In this case, oscillate means to cause the electric current to move in a way that influences the dipoles to change and fluctuate. Picture strings vertically tied to a rope in the middle, movement to the rope cause the strings to ripple outward in the direction they are facing.

When it says that the spatial pattern of the EOD has dipolar geometry, you can imagine a magnet where the animal is the positive side and the object it is heading towards is the negative side and they attract each other making a sort of map.

Objects or parts that are able to conduct electricity in nonmetallic substances (e.g water).

"Neuro" refers to the organism's nerves and nervous system and "computational" refers to a calculation. The study is calculating the work that the nervous system is conducting in order to use electrolocation.

Auto means "self" and genous means "producing/originating from", so this word itself can be defined as self-producing or originating from within.

Certain marine and aquatic vertebrates have electric organs which allow the organism to produce electric fields (electrogenesis).The electric organs of these organisms contain electroreceptors, which provide the organism the ability to sense the electric fields in their environment. The sensory system created by the electroreceptors within these organism results in the electroreception and allows the organism to be better adapted to their underwater and salty environment. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/expphysiol.1988.sp003144/epdf

Functional units of the central nervous system that are organized systematically based on function and vary in their anatomical location in the body; they all work together to carry out complex body functions, in this case the process of electrolocation.

An extremely large and diverse group of fish that are mainly identified by the presence of a homocercal tail, in which the upper and lower parts of the tail are equal in size. An example of a teleost fish would be a tuna or halibut.

The ability to detect weak naturally occurring electrostatic fields in the environment. Electroreception aides in the detection of prey, food sources, and objects. It can also be used by some species as a means of social communication.

-This excerpt provides a brief synopsis of what electroreception is and explains its relevance to the experiment discussed in this article.

https://www.britannica.com/science/electroreception (Hopkins,2017)

This term refers to a machine that is able to produce electricity in order to produce motion. For electric fish and similar organisms, it means their organs have the ability to produce electricity, that is used to produce movement.

Organs found in fish that can recognize electric stimuli using specialized sensory cells.

Measuring things through data and numbers. In this context, scientists currently do not have numbers to describe the process of electrolocation.

The ability of the nervous system of certain organisms to sense electrical impulses in their environment. It is similar to when a person uses their nose to smell a certain scent or odor in the proximity; in this case the electric fish are able to use their organs to sense electrical pulses nearby.

Le plus fort

P values greater than 0.001 are generally considered insignificant in statistics.

"Bootstrapping" is a process that allows scientists to ensure that their statistical data sets are correct by doing hundreds of random samplings.

Material or substance that prevents the loss of heat to the environment.

The period of time every day that the plant receives light.

The period at which the plant grows and opens its flowers.

The specific temperature that needs to be reached in order for a result to occur.

The process of aging.

A type of structure that develops on the stem of the plant which later grows into another part of the plant like a flower.

Retaining green leaves throughout the year.

Herbaceous plant without grass-like features in contrast to graminoids.

A collection and combination of data.

Being different in structure or composition.

Characteristic of shedding leaves.

The start of the growth cycle of a plant.

The accumulated daily temperature required for plants to flower or start growing or produce fruits.

The difference in moisture ( Liquid such as water present as vapor) between the inside and outside of a material like wood or soil.

Region characterized by low temperatures, freezing soil and treeless terrain composed mainly of cold-resistant plants.

Gas that is present in very small concentrations in the Earth's atmosphere.

Key seasonal changes in plants like the timing of flowering, especially in relation to climate.

Relating to high-elevation mountains.

This part of the flower collects the pollen that has been delivered, whether by wind or pollinators.

The process in which resources are searched for and gathered.

A flower species that is known as the Pineland Golden Trumpet. This plant is native to Pine Rocklands.

A mass of pollen grains. These pollen grains are the product of each anther lobe of some flowers (especially orchids). Single or paired pollinia are attached to, and carried by pollinating insects.

In many insects, the proboscis is the elongated sucking mouthpart that is typically tubular and flexible. Pollinators use this to suck the nectar of flowers.

Refers to another organism of the same species.

The outer part of the flower, which consists of sepals and pedals.

Does There Need To Be an "I" in Team? Loner bee excels in promoting fruit set on Invasive plant species Solanum when compared to socially outgoing native bees

Seedlings, or young plants with the potential for growth after germination.

Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana) is a commonly used plant for research because of ease of manipulation. With a genome of approximately 125 megabase pairs (Mbp) and only 5 chromosomes, it is relatively quick to sequence and much background literature exists on the genome. It also matures in 6 weeks, and is easily cultivated in confined spaces.

Individuals vary in the number of offspring they produce. Fecundity is often measured as the number of offspring produced by an individual. When populations have higher fecundity, there are more individuals to populate the region just outside the current species range, which result in increased spread velocity.

Species acquire new range at a given rate, expressed as land acquired per unit time. How fast species spread into new range is important for how quickly invasive species can take over an area or a native species can adapt to a changing climate.

A time interval between the stimulation and response.

Noises rats make that are outside the range of human hearing.

Anxiety-causing.

Tactile means relating to touch.

Nontactile neural responses are caused by triggers other than direct touch, such as behaviors or emotional state.

Neurons that are excited by tickling are also excited by play, and neurons that are suppressed by neurons are also suppressed by play. This suggests a link between tickling and play at the neuronal level.

Activity in the brain that corresponds to an external, physical, or behavioral event.

This refers to the physical characteristics of the rock as observed in an exposed outcrop or in a core sample. Here the authors are referencing differences in the layer of soil overlying the Footprint Tuff.

These are typically aerial photos that have been corrected so that there is no distortion. The scale is uniform.

Close to the optical center of a lens, it is assumed that there is no image distortion or exaggeration of the image. A grid system can be used to determine the distance between points in a distorted image and the actual distance.

Distal means away from the point of attachment or center of the body. Metatarsals are the five long bones in the foot located between the tarsals and toes (phalanges). Thus, as the individual walked, the placement of weight on the foot started at the heel and moved toward the toes.

An ursid is a bear.

Rabbits, hares, and pikas are classified as lagomorphs.

Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation. In Test-pit L8, the environmental forces acting to form soil destroyed the fossil footprints.

Carbonate rock reacts with water that contains dissolved carbon dioxide. This reaction with the slightly acidified water results in the rock being eroded away.

Graben is a geological term for a depressed section of Earth's crust. An example would be a river valley created by erosion or a rift valley created through faulting. A micro-graben is a small depression bordered by higher scarps.

Species that still exist.

The study of the external and internal structure and shape of organisms. This would include hominin skeletal structure, size, and foot shape.

The term refers to how tall a person is when standing upright.

Perennial plants grow and bloom over the spring and summer, but die back every autumn and winter.

This seasonal process involves the annual gain and loss of the biomass required for blooming.

The elimination of a constant fraction, of the carbon quantity present in plants that goes into the soil, over time. Plants decompose and release their carbon into the soil. The author collected data, from each plot, to produce a constant fraction to be used in the equation.

The CO2 atmospheric concentration surrounding the experimental plots. The local CO2 atmospheric concentration can vary from plot to plot.

The natural vegetation found in grasslands such as: C4 grasses, C3 grasses, legumes, and other forbs.

When the effectiveness of increased species richness on carbon storage, in an environment, starts to level off and not increase so drastically. This effect on the relationship between plant diversity and carbon sequestering can be seen the longer time goes on.

The rate of photosynthesis of plants minus the rate of respiration plants conduct to survive.

Plants convert light energy, from the sun, to sugar during photosynthesis. Plants then use the sugar they created as energy to survive and function in their environment, this is considered plant respiration. The total amount of sugar left over is considered the net primary productivity of a plant.

An abiotic element that affects an environment. The amount of precipitation, temperature, geography, etc. These elements affect a plant's ability to reproduce, function, and conduct photosynthesis.

Growing only one type of plant species in an environment.

The use of only one plant species reduces the total amount of carbon uptake in a farmer's field and strips valuable nutrients in an environment and faster than the addition of multiple plant species.

The Conservation Reverse Program was a policy implemented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), for sensitive agricultural lands to not be used for farming or ranching, but instead for conservation benefits. The conservation benefits the USDA wishes to advance are: plant species' ability to stabilize soil, filter water, purify air, and support local wildlife.

A social cost is an expense that must be payed by an entire society as a result of a particular event, action, or policy change. In this context, the event would be an increased species richness.

The ability of an environment to restore itself after the ecosystem has been through devastating changes. From the growth of primary organisms and the accumulation of food and energy, an ecosystem can rebuild itself.

Reservoirs of carbon that accumulate in plants, soil, ocean, and atmosphere. This paper specifically looks at the carbon reservoirs in the grassland ecosystems where the experiment is taking place.

The base-line economical worth assigned to plants for just being plants.This paper explains that there are many different characteristics that can be used to calculate a plant's economic worth based on the plant species importance to an ecosystem.The economical worth of plant species increases as levels of CO2 in the atmosphere increases because of their ability to take CO2 out of the atmosphere and store it.

Companies have to pay for the amount of carbon dioxide they emit, so in the context of this paper it means the dollar amount assigned to carbon.

Different species that conduct photosynthesis to create energy. Different plant species that convert light energy into chemical energy. For this experiment, the author questions the impact of increased species richness on carbon storage in American grasslands.

A rapid increase in the amount of a quantifiable unit. In plant species, proliferation refers to the rapid increase in the number of plant species that now inhabit earth. The diverse array of species around the world is a valuable component to producing ecosystem services that benefit all organisms.

Organisms that require oxygen to produce energy and to survive. Plants help to maintain the earth's oxygen rich atmosphere through photosynthesis (CO2 is taken in and oxygen is released). Without the existence of plant life, other organisms that depend on oxygen to breathe would not exist.

As plants conduct photosynthesis and gain energy, they grow. Plants accumulate biomass through the storage of carbon and uptake of other vital nutrients required for plant grow. By taking the dry-weight of plants, the scientist can see how much carbon is being taking up through the soil.

Marginal value is the amount of economic growth received for each additional unit of species richness relative to the previous unit. The paper suggests that marginal value decreases with the addition of species, when considering biomass accumulation, due to competition. This implies the addition of each new species to an ecosystem causes diminishing returns on rate of growth for all plants because each plant is competing for limited resources.

The amount of energy the grasslands will be producing. If there is a greater degree of competition between the different species than there will be a higher output of growth and carbon storage.

The number of different collective groups of organisms that are in a habitat. The increasing number of varieties of organisms will be compared to the carbon storage throughout the habitat. The scientists expect that a higher number of variety will disclose an increase in economic value.

A measure of the variety of life or different species in a specific environment. Increased biodiversity is associated with promoting competition which increases carbon storage.

The ability of plants to uptake carbon from the environment and convert it into biomass. Plants decrease CO2 levels by absorbing carbon from the atmosphere to use for photosynthesis.

DEET is a ubiquitous repellent known to effectively provide protection from many biting insects, particularly mosquitoes. Its exact interaction between itself and the organisms it targets are not yet fully known. Yet, what is understood is that it possesses two primary lines of negative feedback that act as a defense to prevent feeding. These two are the olfactory and gustatory levels. This, along with other smaller contributors are what give DEET its ability to deter insects

In statistics, the term robust or robustness refers to the strength of a statistical model, indicating that the model has good performance for data drawn from a wide range of probability distributions.

A power law is a functional relationship between two quantities, where one quantity varies as a power of the other.

An example of a power law is Zipf's Law, which says that the distribution of words in a given corpus of text is a function of the frequency of the words. In a given corpus of text, the most frequent word occurs twice as much as the second most frequent one, which shows up twice as much as the third most frequent one, and so on.

A stochastic event has a random probability distribution or pattern that may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely.

An aggregate shutdown is a stochastic event because it depends on the probability of that aggregate being found by predators (entities capable of shutting it down).

An aggregate is fragmented when it is broken down into other aggregates of smaller size. This happens, for instance, when an aggregate is shut down.

A bipartite graph is a set of graph vertices decomposed into two disjoint sets such that no two graph vertices within the same set are connected.

In the paper, the disjoint sets of nodes that constitute the bipartite graph are aggregates and followers. In this graph, there are no direct connections between aggregates (they can only be connected through other people). The same holds for followers: they are connected to aggregates, but not (directly) to other followers.

Self-radicalization is a phenomenon by which individuals become terrorists without affiliating with a radical group, although they may be influenced by its ideology and message.

Reference: http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Self-radicalization

An ad hoc group of followers of an online page that interact in a language-agnostic way and with freely chosen names that help attract followers without making public the identities of the group's members.

The paper uses the term aggreagates in three ways:

1. as a members of an ad hoc group of followers on an online page (as defined above);
2. as refering to pro-ISIS aggregates, which are aggregates that appear to express a strong allegiance to ISIS;
3. in contrast to followers, which are people who interact with aggregates online.

In the Supplementary Material, the authors provide a link to a video showing how agrregates can be set up for any purpose on Facebook, VKontakte, and other similar websites.

The term "ecology" can be defined as the set of relationships between a complex system and its surroundings or environment. In the context of this paper, the relationship between pro-ISIS ad hoc groups formed online constitutes an ecology. It can also be interpreted as "ecosystem" in this context.

A process that is repeated several times until a desired outcome is reached.

The extent to which observed data match the values expected by theory.

In this context, the value P = 0.86 says that 86% of the values observed matched those predicted by the proposed model.

This process happens when an unattached follower is combined to an aggregate, or when an aggregate is absorbed into another.

The shapes resembling parts of a shark's body. These shapes are shown in the chart by an increase followed by an abrupt drop.

Polypropylene is a plastic polymer used in packaging, reusable containers, laboratory equipment, and medical devices. It is a polymer made of repeating subunits (groups of atoms) with three carbons in each subunit. Polypropylene is the second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene.

Polyethylene is a polymer, made of repeating subunits (groups of atoms) with two carbons in each subunit. It is the most commonly produced plastic in the world, used in applications such as plastic bags, films, and bottles.

Signals that conflict or interfere with one another.

The voltage generated by the difference in the concentrations of ions on either side of a membrane.

"Pouches" within the light organ that are lined with columnar-shaped cells, where the Vibrio attach.

The process in female reproduction where the eggs or ova (female gametes) are produced.

The process of testing a material to determine its composition and quality.

The transfer of DNA from a virus into a cell.

Shows radiation from somewhere else by allowing the wavelength to become shorter with a x-rays or ultraviolet waves.

This is a technique used in chemistry. It is important because it allows for the development of chemical compound of a desired chemical structure based on a similar product.

Proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression.

Microliter; there are 1,000,000µl in one liter (L)

The corpora allata (CA) is responsible for the production and release of juvenile hormones. The corpora cardiaca (CC) complexes are responsible for regulating reproduction and metamorphosis. The CC send out messages for the body to produce hormones that mature ovaries and hormones to produce insulin.

This involves an intracellular signaling pathway, which occurs within the cell membrane of a cell, and is important in regulating the cell cycle. Also, it is directly related to how cancer forms and the length of an organism's lifespan.

This type of insulin is also known as beef insulin because it is extracted from the pancreas of cattle. Bovine insulin differs from human insulin because it is less soluble and absorbed by the body more slowly. Like human insulin, bovine insulin regulates how much glucose is administered to muscle and fat cells.

The glands that are attached to the brain of insects that produce juvenile hormones that help to promote gene expression in larva development.

The pause that occurs in an insect during development.

Transformation from juvenile to adult where the adult will have similar hormone levels before and after metamorphosis.

Able to adapt or be adapted to different functions. In this case, the juvenile hormone is a molecule that adjust to different environments.

The insulin/TOR pathway regulates a cell's and an organism's metabolism, and serves an essential function in controlling tissue growth and responses to starvation.

Type of skeletal muscle that takes up most of the muscle of a fish.

From the side.

The back of a body; posterior.

Relating to the region immediately beneath the skin.

A device that gives off electric impulses.

Using electric impulses (to contract muscles).

Occurs after the event.

An area filled with sound.

A multi-beam sonar used to detect fish up to 164 feet away from where the beam is being produced.

A test that uses high frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to detect a living thing.

An electronic device that increase the power of a signal.

Equipment being used.

A device used to measure strain on an object.

Sensor used to measure temperature.

Stretched out or extended.

Barracudas' swimming mode is accelerator specialists: they swim with moderate drag but maximized thrust when they almost "jump" out at their prey, which is locally available. Because of this, they are considered by fishermen to be like "lazy fish" for mostly sitting still in shady areas, waiting for prey to swim near them and pounce, rather than going to hunt.

Frontal; on the front.

Remodeling of muscle (atrophic response) as an adaptation to the reduced loads placed upon it; decrements occur in skeletal muscle strength, fatigue resistance, motor performance, and connective tissue integrity.

The amount by which a single measurement differs from a fixed value such as the mean.

Creating enough force to result in movement.

Relating to the study of hydrodynamics: a branch of physics that deals with the motion of fluids and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids and in motion relative to them.

An electromechanical device that measures acceleration forces affecting something. These forces can be all sorts of things such as the force of gravity pulling you down at your feet.

Possible to have or achieve.

Without a doubt.

Use of a accelerometer to quantify movement

Relating to, involving, or requiring an absence of free oxygen.

Of or relating to the open sea.

The rapid formation and collapse of vapor pockets in a flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure.

photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy from the sun to transform carbon dioxide, water and minerals to oxygen and organic compounds

A perennial plant is one that persists for many growing seasons. Many will keep their leaves year round, while some may die back and re-grow from the same root system.

A constant liquid fertilizer is a water-soluble fertilizer that is added to irrigation water and applied to plants during watering times

The term substrate, in a agricultural science context, is a general term used when referring to the medium in which a plant/crop is grown.

A panicle is a flower cluster that typically grows at the end of a shoot or stem.

Soil-Plant Analysis Development refers to the method for estimating the chlorophyll content present in a plant leaf. This is typically accomplished using a handheld meter.

DAT is an acronym for days after treatment. This term is used in agronomy when keeping record of herbicide, fertilizer and pesticide treatments.

The Normalized Difference Vegetative Index is calculated using the visible and near-infrared light reflected by vegetation.

A controlled release fertilizer contains plant nutrients in a form that is not immediately available to the plant. A CRF provides the plant with nutrients for a longer period of time, throughout the growing season.

A topdressing refers to the process used to distribute fertilizer or manure to the surface layer of soil surrounding a crop.

A measure of peak sharpness for a distribution.

A measure of asymmetry, primarily describing some distribution by reference to the tails of the dataset. Left skewed data has a tail that leans to the left and right skewed data has a tail that leans to the right.

A set of numbers or observations.

A female organ that produces eggs.

An oocyte is an immature egg cell.

A disaccharide is two monosaccharides chemically linked together

Parasite moves through a homogeneous host population (of fruit fly cells in this case), attempting to occupy as many cells as possible.

Plural for locus, a particular place or point.

A baseline or standard that allows scientists to ensure that their manipulation of some variable, such as a food type in this experiment, actually has an observable effect that deviates from the baseline or standard.

The concentration of a solution, in this case, the concentration of Wolbachia bacteria in maternal germline cells.

A point within a cladogram (a branching diagram) that contains more than two descendants.

A tree diagram that demonstrates relationships between different species in their evolutionary track.

the branch of biology that studies structure, function, evolution, and mapping of genes.

"Stinginess". The best hypothesis in making phylogenetic trees is the one that calls for the fewest evolutionary changes throughout time.

Genetic detail from the same chromosome.

Unit of measure for a nucleic-acid chain. Equals 1,000 bases.

Mainly examined for prediction of gene function. Related through vertical descent from ancestors.

A DNA or RNA molecule that is brought up by three nucleotides forming together.

Taxonomic group of any level: species, class, etc.

A compound that forms the basic structural unit of a nucleic acid.

Similar, sharing something in common.

Data at present used to predict that of entire population. Usually completed by the extraction of data, probably randomly, and re-tested. Essentially, bootstrap resembles the confidence level in the values resulted. The results don't necessarily have to be correct, its a measure of certainty.

A constant that defines the function of a certain study.

A series of items or information linked together.

Branch of biology that deals with the evolutionary uniqueness of organisms.

Way in which big ideas or parts are connected or arranged to make sense.

Protein or DNA that have the same or similar sequencing due to their ancestry.