he association between poorlanguage proficiency and psychological problems may also be mediated by employ-ment status (Hinton et al., 1997; Westermeyer et al., 1989); unemployment is itself arisk to mental health (Dooley, 2003).

Mastery of foreign languages, spoken far away ‘in other countries’, issomething sufficiently divorced from daily life that it can be appreciated as a skill. Its mastery is likelyto be less than the mastery and attachment to English, not thereby challenging presumed deepattachments of national allegiance. However, when the languages are less foreign, when emotionalattachment and mastery may be high, their study, public use and maintenance ‘threatencivilisation’. No longer a skill, but sedition.

Having described the NAs themselves, Lett moves on to discussseveral important reliability and validity issues that should be ofconcern to needs analysts everywhere, but which have very rarelybeen discussed in the NA literature. These include the use ofconvenience samples of subject matter experts, the lack of readyexternal criteria for assessing the validity of analyses, the lack ofindependence of proficiency level ratings obtained via the collabora-tive group process, possible response bias, and the halo effect. Heidentifies potential solutions to several of the problems, e.g., stratifiedrandom sampling, use of surrogate or partial test-retest and modifiedsplit-half procedures for improving reliability, and relating DLIgraduates' language proficiency ratings to supervisors' field reportson their subsequent job performance in predictive validity studies. Hepoints out, however, that the increased costs in time and personnel,among other problems, would often render them inadequate, or insome cases preclude their adoption altogether.

Second, he shows howtriangulation by sources (scholars, company representatives, domainexperts, and documents) and methods (unstructured and structuredinterviews, introspections, non-participant observation, and ques-

ery language courseshould be considered a course for specific purposes, varying only(and considerably, to be sure) in the precision with which learnerneeds can be specified

nage everydaamong most migmigrants only pthe Netherlands).general logic amWhen looking atmore integrated isince we studiedthro

Results

They gradually became more involved inthe teaching process and participated more actively. Drawing from their ownvoices:

Our data analysis meth-ods were qualitative thematic analysis and critical discourse analysi

2 MethodologyConcerning the research methodology, both projects were team-based and inter-disciplinary

e conductedneeds analysis (Long 2005), which was perceived in a more societal way

The two projects had four main characteristics

A qualitative approach was adopted using interviews, focus groups, ethnograph-ic observation, and written reports. B

Mears emphasizes the connection between researcher and participant, seeking to breakdown barriers between researcher and participants through empathy and the developmentof an insider perspective.

I focused on aspects ofthe rites that informed the dominant scheme of ritual functionality-order, communitas,and transformation. A perspective of intersectionality (Collins, 1998) also informedthe analysis.

Compre-hensive field-notes were collected immediately upon exiting the field and weresupplemented and refined by continued questioning of and informal conversa-tion with church members and the lesbian couple for whom the shower andholy union were celebrate

inembargo, la creciente migración en Europa y la globalización en general estáncreando situaciones aún más complejas que exigirán, además de una óptima

A total of 16 participants were interviewed, nine from the charity and sevenfrom the NHS. The nine men and seven women ranged from 20 to 65 years (mean37 years) and had lived in the UK for five months to 14 years (mean seven years)(see Table 1; for confidentiality, age and area of origin are provided in generalterms). All participants had attended, were currently attending, or were waiting fortreatment by mental health services. All participants were able to read and write inat least one language. Three further potential participants dropped out: one whorefused audiotaping, and two because of changes in circumstances.Using recommendations by Guest, Bunce and Johnson (2006) for selectingacross different groups of interest and adapted for homogenous groups, a sampleof 16 was considered sufficient for data saturation and diversity (Barbour, 2001).Purposive sampling aimed for broad recruitment in characteristics includinggender, age, time in the UK and status, including ‘‘negative cases’’ (Mays &Pope, 2000)

participants were interviewed inEnglish. Interview data were analysed using thematic analysis from a critical realist per-spective. Interviewees provided consistent accounts of their efforts to learn English,integrated into often unsettled and difficult lives. T

Language standardisation, initially generated for literary reasons, then serves, through the precisionand predictability that codified norms allow, the practical tasks of running state apparatuses.

But nations which construe themselves as pluralist, accommodating to diversity,imagining it as a resource in a globalising and multipolar world, are a recent innovation. The statehas traditionally been either neutral or neglectful of popular multilingualism.

These intra-language tensionsaccompany inter-language tensions which result from the practical collapse of the goal of nation-state language policy which sought to enshrine single national standard languages as emblems ofdistinctiveness and national cultural identit

A linguistic consequence of this is intra-lingual diversification and cultural tension. As Englishassumes the function of lingua mundi (Jernudd 1992), absorbing the lingua franca role of otherinternational languages, a complex dynamic of cultural politics emerges (Pennycook 1994).