O'Leary, Caitlin. "The New Ice Age: The Dawn of Arctic Shipping and Canada's Fight for Sovereignty Over the Northwest Passage." The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 46, no. 1 (2014): 117-34. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24375809.

This paper stresses the reasons Canada must take legal control over shipping in the Northwest Passage. Most interesting is the discussion of the potential benefits offered by the opening of such a passage, especially regarding the irony caused by the development of this new pathway made possible by climate change as a way of reducing carbon emissions. It provides backgrounds for the legal implications of the opening of the passage. In all the excitement regarding the opening of such a passage, it is easy to forget most early routes rely almost exclusively on potentially sovereign water.

Smith, Laurence C., and Scott R. Stephenson. "New Trans-Arctic Shipping Routes Navigable by Midcentury." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110, no. 13 (2013): 4871-872. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42583377.

Mr. Smith is a professor and Chair of Geography and a professor of Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences at UCLA and Mr. Stephenson is an Assistant Professor of Geography at the University of Connecticut. This article uses predictions regarding the expanse of sea ice to explore the viability of shipping through the Arctic during September (the time of the year with the least sea ice). Their decision to target September is interesting because it allows the determination of whether these sea routes will be navigable at all, but also suggests the continued closure of these routes during most the year.

Koch, Wendy. "3 reasons why Shell halted drilling in the Arctic." National Geographic. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/energy/2015/09/150928-3-reasons-shell-halted-drilling-in-the-arctic/.

Ms. Koch uses this article to describe why Shell ultimately decided to halt its Arctic drilling. The reasons mirror those of other failed expeditions in the region, specifically the formidable challenges posed by the Arctic weather. This paper uses their estimates for the natural resources remaining in the area to explain another reason the surrounding countries are attempting to exert their influence.

Parkinson, Claire L. "Variability of Arctic Sea Ice: The View from Space, an 18-Year Record." Arctic 53, no. 4 (2000): 341-58. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40512249.

Claire L. Parkinson is a Senior Fellow at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center where she specializes in polar ice and climate change. This document maps polar ice reach over an 18-year period, effectively demonstrating the changes the Arctic is undergoing. Furthermore, sections of this paper are based on models of the Arctic in the future, and this article establishes a baseline against which these changes can be judged. In a region largely dominated by speculation the definitive statements made in this paper serve to ground many of these theories.

Parkinson, Claire L. "Variability of Arctic Sea Ice: The View from Space, an 18-Year Record." Arctic 53, no. 4 (2000): 341-58. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40512249.

Claire L. Parkinson is a Senior Fellow at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center where she specializes in polar ice and climate change. This document maps polar ice reach over an 18-year period, effectively demonstrating the changes the Arctic is undergoing. Furthermore, sections of this paper are based on models of the Arctic in the future, and this article establishes a baseline against which these changes can be judged. In a region largely dominated by speculation the definitive statements made in this paper serve to ground many of these theories.

Roston, Eric, and Blacki Migliozzi. "How a melting Arctic changes everything." Bloomberg. April 19, 2017. Accessed May 7, 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/.

This article provides data on temperature changes in the Arctic as well as a discussion of the shrinking mature ice pack. It predicts the Arctic will be increasingly ice free and examines the impact this will have on the rest of the planet. It also suggests that change in the region will occur at an increasingly rapid rate, something not present in more historical analyses.

Roston, Eric, and Blacki Migliozzi. "How a melting Arctic changes everything." Bloomberg. April 19, 2017. Accessed May 7, 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/.

This article provides data on temperature changes in the Arctic as well as a discussion of the shrinking mature ice pack. It predicts the Arctic will be increasingly ice free and examines the impact this will have on the rest of the planet. It also suggests that change in the region will occur at an increasingly rapid rate, something not present in more historical analyses.

"Soviet Surface Ship Is First to North Pole." Science News 112, no. 9 (1977): 135. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3962493.

This article serves to compare the various firsts regarding the North Pole, while simultaneously providing information on the Arktika. Given the time, the clout given to the Soviet news agency is slightly surprising, but it is unlikely the paper would have access to any U.S. intelligence on the Arktika class icebreakers.

Griffen, Charles J. G. ""Operation Sunshine": The rhetoric of a Cold War technological spectacle." Rhetoric and Public Affairs 16, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 521-42. Accessed March 26, 2017. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/522544/summary.

The primary discussion of this article relates to the reasoning behind the United States’ desire to cross the Arctic under the North Pole. It was done in relative secrecy, and as a response to the actions of the Soviet Union. The attempted casting of the event as peaceful is almost laughable. Yes, the ship was unarmed, but it was still a nuclear-powered U.S. Navy vessel. Also, interestingly, the idea for the journey was pitched by the Nautilus’ captain, William Anderson and not a member of Eisenhower’s staff.

Peary, Robert E. Secrets of polar travel. New York: Century Co., 1917.

Mr. Peary is typically regarded as the first person to reach the North Pole. This account describes what was necessary for him to accomplish such a feat. Written well after his expedition to the pole, this work is more a reflection than an account of the day to day events of the journey. As such, he contextualizes certain decisions, including the choice of wooden ships over metal ones, and the possible use of airplanes in polar exploration. The writing is suggestive of how he believes such expeditions should be undertaken, even going so far as to the blame certain events, such as the sinking of the Jeannette on poor design choices.

Durey, Michael. "Exploration at the edge: Reassessing the fate of Sir John Franklin’s last Arctic Expedition." The Great Circle 30, no. 2 (2008): 3-40. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41563270.

Mr. Durey details the mystery surrounding the fate of Sir John Franklin’s expedition to find the missing piece of the Northwest Passage. Though not all the questions have been answered, it details a significant portion of their disastrous journey. Most notable was their motive to discover this link and their fortitude following the deaths of their captain and several the crew. Despite John Rae ultimately finding the missing piece, the fate of the expedition illustrates the hazards posed by Arctic travel and the reason it has remained economically undeveloped for so long.

Arima, Eugene. "East Canadian Arctic Kayak." Arctic 43, no. 2 (1990): 187-89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40511145.

This article discusses the use of kayaks in the Arctic, even in the use of hunting bowhead whales. It represents a fundamentally different way to traverse the Arctic, shorter trips carrying much less cargo, and a nimble design to move around and over (if necessary) the ice. While American whalers used large crews, and sought as many whales as possible, these kayaks were typically driven by a single man. They primarily sought seals, but whales represent the pinnacle of hunting for these native people. The difference between subsistence hunting and the whaling industry is especially visible in this context.

Lasserre, Frédéric. "Arctic Shipping Routes: From the Panama Myth to Reality." International Journal 66, no. 4 (2011): 793-808. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23104393.

Frédéric Lassarre is a professor of geography at Laval University in Quebec. This article discusses the potential for the expansion of arctic shipping with the corresponding decrease in surface ice. This article is unique in that beyond the potential for the entirety of the Northwest Passage he discusses the less invasive but important transportation of mine material from Labrador via the use of reinforced ships. This describes the desire to expand shipping in the area, even before the Northwest Passage is completely ice free, something that was overlooked in the other articles on this topic.

Mason, Carol Y., and Adagrace Rowlands. "Panama Canal Traffic." Economic Geography 14, no. 4 (1938): 325-37. doi:10.2307/141526.

An economic analysis of traffic through the Panama Canal, this article is used to establish the reason for its construction, including more than halving the distance. The benefits offered by the canal are like those offered by the Northwest Passage with one major exception. The heavily controlled Panama Canal allowed the omission of hazardous ocean sections such as the Strait of Magellan, the Northwest Passage effectively makes the journey more dangerous.

My primary concern with this paper is where more details are needed, the period I am covering is relatively broad and it will be helpful to know where you think I am lacking. I also left my thesis relatively broad as a result of this, and would like to know if it should be narrowed to make a broader statement about shaping in the arctic other than that it will occur in in quantity in the near future and potentially benefit the world economy. I am most proud the way in which various actors tied together their visions of new technologies in the arctic and the way in which I was able to show that despite these prospects, large scale innovation in the region has been negligible. This is a relatively sad realization given the possibilities, even if large scale use of nuclear cargo submarines was not the most realistic proposal. I believe I did well in showing how reliant arctic travel has been on watercraft, but would especially like input on how well this is related to the potential for shipping in the region and the variability of the environment.

Arima, Eugene. "East Canadian Arctic Kayak." Arctic 43, no. 2 (1990): 187-89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40511145.

This article discusses the use of kayaks in the arctic, even in the use of hunting bowhead whales. It represents a fundamentally different way to traverse the arctic, shorter trips carrying much less cargo, and a nimble design to move around and over (if necessary) the ice. While American whalers used large crews, and sought as many whales as possible, these kayak were typically driven by a single man. They primarily sought seals, but whales represent the pinnacle of hunting for these native people. The difference between subsistence hunting and the whaling industry is especially visible in this context.

Lasserre, Frédéric. "Arctic Shipping Routes: From the Panama Myth to Reality." International Journal 66, no. 4 (2011): 793-808. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23104393.

Frédéric Lassarre is a professor of geography at Laval University in Quebec. This article discusses the potential for expansion of arctic shipping with the corresponding decrease in surface ice. This article is unique in that beyond the potential for the entirety of the Northwest Passage he discusses the less invasive but important transportation of mine material from Labrador via the use of reinforced ships. This describes the desire to expand shipping in the area, even before the Northwest Passage is completely ice free, something that was overlooked in the other articles on this topic.

Smith, Laurence C., and Scott R. Stephenson. "New Trans-Arctic Shipping Routes Navigable by Midcentury." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110, no. 13 (2013): 4871-872. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42583377.

Mr. Smith is a professor and Chair of Geography and a professor of Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences at UCLA and Mr. Stephenson is an Assistant Professor of Geography at the University of Connecticut. This article uses predictions regarding the expanse of sea ice to explore the viability of shipping through the arctic during September (the time of the year with the least sea ice). Their decision to target September is interesting because it allows the determination of whether or not these sea routes will be navigable at all, but also suggests the continued closure of these routes during the majority of the year.

O'Leary, Caitlin. "The New Ice Age: The Dawn of Arctic Shipping and Canada's Fight for Sovereignty Over the Northwest Passage." The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 46, no. 1 (2014): 117-34. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24375809.

This paper stresses the reasons Canada must take legal control over shipping in the Northwest Passage. Most interesting is the discussion of the potential benefits offered by the opening of such a passage, especially with regard to the seeming irony caused by the development of this new pathway made possible by climate change as a way of reducing carbon emissions. It provides backgrounds for the legal implications of the opening of such a passage. In all the excitement regarding the opening of such a passage, it is easy to forget most early routes rely almost exclusively on potentially sovereign water.

Mason, Carol Y., and Adagrace Rowlands. "Panama Canal Traffic." Economic Geography 14, no. 4 (1938): 325-37. doi:10.2307/141526.

An economic analysis of traffic through the Panama Canal, this article is used to establish the reason for its construction, including more than cutting the distance in half. The benefits offered by the canal are similar to those offered by the Northwest Passage with one major exception. The heavily controlled Panama Canal allowed the omission of hazardous ocean sections such as the Strait of Magellan.

"Soviet Surface Ship Is First to North Pole." Science News 112, no. 9 (1977): 135. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3962493.

This article serves to compare the various firsts regarding the North Pole, while simultaneously providing information on the Arktika. Given the time period, the clout given to the Soviet news agency is slightly surprising, but it is unlikely the paper would have access to any U.S. intelligence on the Arktika class icebreakers.

Griffen, Charles J. G. ""Operation Sunshine": The rhetoric of a Cold War technological spectacle." Rhetoric and Public Affairs 16, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 521-42. Accessed March 26, 2017. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/522544/summary.

The primary discussion of this article relates to the reasoning behind the United States’ desire to cross the Arctic under the North Pole. It was done in relative secrecy, and as a response to the actions of the Soviet Union. The attempted casting of the event as peaceful is almost laughable. Yes, the ship was unarmed, but was still a nuclear-powered U.S. Navy vessel. Also interestingly, the idea for the journey was pitched by the Nautilus’ captain, William Anderson.

1. Peary, Robert E. Secrets of polar travel. New York: Century Co., 1917. Mr. Peary is typically regarded as the first person to reach the North Pole. This account describes what was necessary in order for him to accomplish such a feat. Written well after his expedition to the pole, this work is more a reflection than an account of the day to day events of the journey. As such, he contextualizes certain decisions, including the choice of wooden ships over metal ones, and the possible use of airplanes in polar exploration. The writing is suggestive of how he believes such expeditions should be undertaken, even going so far as to the blame certain events, such as the sinking of the Jeannette on poor design choices.

The decision to veto the proposed pipeline in accordance with Mr. Berger’s recommendation substantially slowed, but did not stop the search for oil in the Arctic. Over the next 40 years, oil companies such as Shell, Exxon, and Chevron would continue their search in a region expected to contain 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of its natural gas.1 But in 2015, Shell, the last remaining company in the American Arctic, announced it would halt its exploratory drilling. This would mark the end of their $7 billion venture into Alaska’s Chuckchi Sea. The well, the Burger J, stretched to a depth of 6,800 feet and showed indications of oil and gas, but amid relatively low oil prices, less than $50 a barrel, and the expense necessary to drill in this section of the ocean they have decided to cease operations. The company originally planned on drill two wells to greater than 8,000 feet, but in the wake of Shell grounding its Kulluck drilling rig, this number was halved by President Obama’s administration.2 This grounding was found to be, in part, the result of Shell’s ill-fated attempt to avoid paying millions of dollars in tax liability. Fortune’s Jon Birger noted in his visit to the rig after it was grounded that it was well prepared to prevent the incident that destroyed BP’s Deepwater Horizon, but, startlingly, was less equipped to deal with the unique weather conditions posed by drilling in the Arctic.3 The Berger report may not have halted Shell’s Artic exploration but a combination of regulatory restrictions and low oil prices seem to have done just that.

1. Lavelle, Marianne. "Coast Guard blames Shell risk-taking in Kulluk rig accident." National Geographic. April 4, 2014. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2014/04/140404-coast-guard-blames-shell-in-kulluk-rig-accident/.
2. Koch, Wendy. "3 reasons why Shell halted drilling in the Arctic." National Geographic. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/energy/2015/09/150928-3-reasons-shell-halted-drilling-in-the-arctic/.
3. Birger, Jon. "What I learned aboard Shell's grounded Alaskan oil rig." Fortune. January 3, 2013. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://fortune.com/2013/01/03/what-i-learned-aboard-shells-grounded-alaskan-oil-rig/.

In the 1970s, rapidly rising oil prices and scarcity, both real and perceived, as the result of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries’ near monopoly on the market drove many western countries to seek alternative sources of power in a bid for self-sufficiency.1 The drilling of oil in the Arctic would have proven a major source of oil to quell these concerns, but the proposal to install the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline was ultimately denied. In the period since publication, the price of oil has declined and the desire to drill in the Arctic has seemingly been calmed. The major oil companies have all withdrawn from the region, with Shell being the final one to do so after lackluster findings in Alaska’s Chuckchi Sea.2 In the time since, both the United States and Canada have placed moratoriums on oil and gas leasing in Arctic waters.3 Thus Canada has made an about face and is now placing the conservation of the Artic environment over the potential oil and gas to be found there. There is little surprise here, given the relatively low price of oil and a growing concern about its influence on the environment. Even if one is to disregard the possible long term benefits of oil consumption, the hazards from extraction and transportation are also considerable. Where they once hoped to lead the way to a more self-sufficient future through Arctic oil, they have now placed a hold the search. They felt it was simply too risky an expedition to undertake at the current time.3

1. AHRARI, MOHAMMED E. "The Oil Embargo." In OPEC: The Failing Giant, 111-32. University Press of Kentucky, 1986. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130j7ns.11.
2. Koch, Wendy. "3 reasons why Shell halted drilling in the Arctic." National Geographic. September 28, 2015. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/energy/2015/09/150928-3-reasons-shell-halted-drilling-in-the-arctic/.
3. "U.S., Canada ban offshore drilling in Arctic waters." CBC News. December 20, 2016. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/obama-ban-offshore-drilling-arctic-atlantic-1.3905384.

Oil spills are potentially catastrophic events for the local environment. Published in 1977, Mr. Berger would have recently seen Alaska’s decision to reverse its ruling on drilling in the Kachemak Bay after a relatively minor spill.1 Oil spills on land, such as those from a pipeline, can be tremendously damaging and kills all currently growing tissue.2 Across water, the potential for the spill to spread is greatly increased, and any damage is exacerbated by the Arctic climate, where its slow rate of degradation would allow it to remain for as long as 50 years.3 The spills are most dangerous on the surface, where they prove especially deadly to birds, and there is concern that a spill could quickly diffuse over a large area, increasing the radiation absorbed and greatly facilitating ice melt. Given the event of a catastrophic failure, the pipeline would have the potential to leak tens of thousands of barrels, not including smaller leaks and the time necessary to detect and repair them. Furthermore, attempts to prevent the spill from reaching the water using temperate containment techniques may be more damaging than helpful due to the use of heavy equipment and the risk this poses to the permafrost.4 In 1967, the Torrey Canyon Oil Spill illustrated the dangers posed by a spill. A supertanker ran aground off the coast of England, spilling between 857,600 and 872,300 barrels of oil, contaminating 300 miles of coastline and killing 25,000 birds as well as various seals and other marine life.5 Therefore, any spill is detrimental to the environment, and if it allowed to reach water, these effects will only be compounded.

1. Panitch, Mark. "Kachemak Bay: Oil Spill Leads Alaska to Reverse Drilling OK." Science 193, no. 4248 (1976): 131. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1743047.
2. Wein, Ross W., and L. C. Bliss. "Experimental Crude Oil Spills on Arctic Plant Communities." Journal of Applied Ecology 10, no. 3 (1973): 671-82. doi:10.2307/2401861.
3. Campbell, W. J., and S. Martin. "Oil and Ice in the Arctic Ocean: Possible Large-Scale Interactions." Science 181, no. 4094 (1973): 56-58. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1735934.
4. Shelton, R. G. J. "Effects of Oil and Oil Dispersants on the Marine Environment." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 177, no. 1048 (1971): 411-22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/75994.
5. "Torrey Canyon." Joye Research Group. Accessed March 5, 2017. http://www.joyeresearchgroup.uga.edu/public-outreach/marine-oil-spills/other-spills/torrey-canyon.

In 1848, the whaling ship Superior, having an unsuccessful season hunting right whales in the Northern Pacific passed through the Bering Strait and into the Arctic Ocean. Within three years, 250 ships were hunting the plentiful bowhead whales in these Arctic seas. These whales were originally sought for oil, but the development of petroleum turned baleen into their most valuable commodity. This material possessed the peculiar property of retaining a heated shape once cooled, and as a result, its price rose from 32 cents a pound in 1850 to $4.90 by 1905.1 The expansion of whaling in the Arctic greatly developed San Francisco’s whaling industry, reducing the need to sail back New England. In 1880, the introduction of the steam ship to the Arctic made it possible for ships to winter north of the Bering Strait and thus reach the whales earlier in the season. But Eskimo exposure to these whalers because of this northern push proved especially detrimental when they were introduced to alcohol and a variety of diseases. It was so devastating that many northern villages lost as much as half their population. Eventually, the yearly fluctuations in the profitability of the industry as well as the high insurance rates introduced after the destruction of the entire fleet in 1871 and a declining price of baleen began to usher in the end of whaling in the artic. This decline was somewhat extended by an increase in the number of ships combining whaling with trade, but as steel and other substitutes for baleen grew in popularity, the industry collapsed. The baleen provided by the bowhead whale had extended whaling in the region beyond many others, but by 1916 only two ships went north, and one was almost exclusively focused on trade.1

1. Vanstone, James W. "Commercial Whaling in the Arctic Ocean." The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 49, no. 1 (1958): 1-10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40487275.