Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) demonstrated that hand washing, when properly practiced by physicians, greatly reduced the death rate among delivering mothers. During

This famous swan-shaped flask experiment settled the controversy concerning the origin of microorganisms. It established the theory of biogenesis,

s

THE 1778 TREATIES AND THE FRANCO-AMERICAN ALLIANCE~​​​​​​​THE TRANSITION TO A NEW DIPLOMATIC ERA

Statuette of Louis XVI and Benjamin Franklin, Courtesy of Winterthur MuseumA pivotal achievement during the American Revolution, the 1778 Treaties created the Franco-American alliance, triggering debates and shaping diplomacy on both sides of the Atlantic in the last quarter of the 18th century.​​​​​​​Through its far-reaching consequences, this alliance also helped define the modern world, marked by the rise of liberty, democracy, and a powerful United States.

It was a success for America

: Yorktown

restored.

once the provisional treaty was signed.

as the war was stalemated,

An

“On 20 January 1783, Adams, Franklin, Aranda, and Fitzherbert joined Vergennes at Versailles to sign the preliminary articles.” (Crout, 396)

American Commissioners of the Preliminary Peace Negotiations with Great Britain by Benjamin West, 1783 (begun), courtesy of Winter

use no person; I blame no one, not even Dr. Franklin. He has yielded too easily to the bias of his colleagues, who do not pretend to recognize the rules of courtesy in regard to us. [...]  If we may judge of the future from what has passed here under our eyes, we shall be but poorly paid for all we have done for the United States and for securing to them a national existence.”~ Vergennes to La Luzerne, French Ambassador in America, December 19, 1782, in Wharton VI, 151, 152

“Nothing has been agreed in the Preliminaries contrary to the Interests of France; and no Peace is to take Place between us and England till you have concluded yours. Your Observation is however apparently just, that in not consulting you before they were signed, we have been guilty of neglecting a Point of Bienséance [Propriety]. But as this was not from Want of Respect for the King whom we all love and honour, we hope it may be excused.” ~ Franklin to Vergennes, 17 December 1782, Founders Online

“[A] final compromise was reached by making United States participation in the fishery an ultimatum for a commercial treaty with Great Britain rather than part of the peace treaty.” ~ Stinchcombe, 7

“Jay and Adams refused to adhere to their year-old congressional instructions not to negotiate without Vergennes nor to agree to any settlements until Louis XVI had approved it." (Shachtman, 288)

anco-American Alliance under Attack by Barrow, 1782, courtesy of the Library of Congress

Yet British propaganda remained optimistic. The Balance of Power, London, 1781, courtesy of the American Antiquarian Society

“In spite of the price paid for it, the Spanish alliance with France was the greatest accomplishment of French diplomacy during the war.” (Dull, 113)

“His Catholic majesty [of Spain] will declare war against the King and crown of England and will join forces with His Most Christian Majesty [of France].” ~ Treaty of Aranjuez, Article 1, in Doniol, III, 805

“... the operations plan allowing the navy and the army of the two Crowns to act in a reciprocally useful way; a necessary part of this plan must be an invasion of the European territories belonging to Britain.” ~ Treaty of Aranjuez, Article 2, in Doniol, III, 805

e Poule and Arethuse by Rossel, 1778, courtesy of Sourdaine.org

“On 23 March, de Noailles [the French ambassador in London] delivered a “paper” to King George that essentially acknowledged the treaty. The king called it “equivalent to a declaration” of war.” (Tudda, 806)

“M. de Vergennes requests us to inform Congress that war between Britain and France, though not formally declared, is considered as having begun with the mutual withdrawal of ambassadors [in March 1778] and hence the treaty with the United States is in full force.”  ~ Franklin and John Adams to the President of Congress, 23 July, 1778, Founders Online

“We have appointed M. Gerard, secretary of our council of state, to reside near you in quality of our minister plenipotentiary.” ~ King of France to Congress, March 28, 1778, JCC 521“Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed to prepare a letter of credence to his most Christian majesty, notifying the appointment of Dr. Franklin minister plenipotentiary of these United States at the Court of France.”~ Congress - Election of Franklin as Minister of France, September 11, 1778, 709

Franklin emphasized it, also floating

The victory at Saratoga, achieved on October 17, 1777 with French support,

to Paris

Now was the time for official engagement, and Congress was enthusiastically informed.

privileged

Commissioners were

Commissioners sent

John Adams, from Massachusetts, drafted a commercial treaty ensuring America’s freedom to trade with all countries. Congress adopted this Model Treaty on July 18, 1776. 

W

Cautious consent to a French alliance  

“M. Gerard, one of the secretaries, came yesterday to inform us, by order of the king, that after long and full consideration of our affairs and propositions in council it was decided, and his majesty was determined, to acknowledge our independence, and makes treaty with us of amity and commerce […] We answered, that […] he [the king] would find us faithful and firm allies, and we wished, with his majesty, that the amity between the two nations might be eternal.” ~ Franklin, Deane, and Lee to the Committee of Foreign Affairs, December 18, 1777, Wharton, II, 452-453

aratoga 

Saratoga

Naval maneuvers at Toulon in July 1777, by Chevalier Flotte de Saint-Joseph, courtesy of Musée national de la Marine

onlineImage citation...Congress appointed Silas Deane as their first foreign agent, sending him to France with instructions to use commerce as a bargaining tool.

, against the old mercantilist system.

internal

Debates over

and military supplies

France was fighting a proxy war against Britain.

secured covert assistance for the colonies in three main ways.  

the

France’s

in

Beaumarchais, courtesy of France Culture

“To undertake commitment only after the most serious examination; but to fulfill all with the most scrupulous exactness, [...] never to dream of war except to defend liberty. [...]War is the greatest of evils with which God afflicts men; ...even those who undertake it justly... and end it with advantage.” ~ Louis XVI (Maximes morales et politiques tirées de Télémaque, 1766 in Crout, 367)

This raised the question of independence.

“We might get some of our Produce to Markett [...] by inviting foreign Powers to make Treaties of Commerce with us.But [...] in what Character shall We treat, as subjects of G.B.—as Rebells? [...]—No. We must declare ourselves a free People.”~ George Wythe in Notes of Debates in the Continental Congress, 1776. Feb. [16], Founders online

"[T]hey must understand that [...] rather than envying them their liberty and independence that they are working to acquire, we admire on the contrary the grandeur and nobility of their efforts and that [...] we shall with pleasure see those happy circumstances that allow them to frequent our ports.” ~ Vergennes to Count de Guines, Ambassador to Great Britain, August 7, 1775, Naval Documents of the American Revolution

“For the Americans to be meeting with Bonvouloir meant to the British that what they had feared, a mutual courtship of France and America, had begun.” ​(Shachtman, 9)

secret

Reshuffling Europe’s Diplomatic Cards

for Pennsylvania

Continental

Common

meets with Benjamin Franklin and other members of the Committee of Secret Correspondence charged with the

indeed, treasonous –meeting.

“England is the Monster

Image citation...

The mastermind behind this secret rendezvous was Comte de Vergennes, an experienced French diplomat, now the foreign secretary for Louis XVI, the young king. Mortified by France’s humiliation in the Seven Years War, Vergennes wanted to restore France’s prestige and weaken its imperial rival, Britain.He welcomed America’s rebellion as an opportunity for revenge.

the

turned the world upside down. It

by

and democracy.

Like the monuments symbolizing Franco-American friendship, the alliance reminds them of their role as champions of liberty and democracy.

through the 1778 alliance

By using its ideals and trade as diplomatic tools, America has nurtured soft power throughout the world, thus reshaping diplomacy.

Political Regime, 1816, courtesy of Our World in Data

was ultimately a success, transforming

notably

friendly

first

The diplomatic order, no longer confined to power politics, was ultimately transformed.

made it its mission

world,

enabling the nation's rise through victory,

started

“One of the earliest examples of American promotion of democracy overseas was the collaboration in Paris between Jefferson and General Gilbert du Motier, the Marquis de Lafayette.” (Sanbrailo)  “The Marquis de Lafayette [...] consulted Thomas Jefferson about France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen before presenting it to the French National Assembly in July 1789.” ~ from "Thomas Jefferson, A Revolutionary World," Library of Congress exhibition

Marquis de Lafayette’s Declaration with emendations by Thomas Jefferson, Manuscript, courtesy of Library of Congress

A successful international marriage ending on a sour note, the 1778 Alliance was a

e painful break-up with France pushed Americans towards chosen international engagement.

permanent

A purely commercial agreement was signed instead, reflecting

1778

, and further

(2020)

appease

Were the 1778 treaties still binding? Should America side with France?

had disseminated in

Reverting to Britain, America parted company with France.

Franklin had been optimistic in 1781. “There are many Commodities much cheaper in France [than in England], such as Wines, Silks, Oil, Modes, &c which will be of great Consumption in America; and when Correspondencies are once settled, and the People there become acquainted with the Manufactures of France, the Demand for them will increase [...]. It is difficult to change suddenly the whole Current, of Connections, Correspondencies & Confidences that subsist between Merchants, and carry them all into a new Channel:— But Time & a Continuance of Friendship will make great Alterations." ​​​​​​​~ Franklin to the Count de Vergennes, Passy, July 6, 1781, Private Letters 55.But the treaty failed to erase these obstacles for commercial but also cultural reasons.

Image citation...

The Treaty of Amity and Commerce

“We have been Contemporaries & fellow-labourers in the cause of liberty, and that we have lived together as Brothers should do—in harmony & friendship.” ~ Washington to Rochambeau, February 1, 1784, Founders Online

“France cancels Washington reception and tones down celebrations of US-French Revolutionary War victory amid submarine spat”

America reciprocated by assisting France in the world wars. “On July 4, 1917, [...] Charles Egbert Stanton, colonel in the U.S. Army [...] delivers a speech ending with this well-known sentence, ‘Lafayette, we are here !’” (“La Fayette, nous voilà !”, fr.usembassy.gov)

Often recalled is “Lafayette [and his] mythic status as the defining symbol of friendship between France and the United States.” (“Lafayette: Citizen of Two Worlds”).“In 1891 the first statue was erected [in Lafayette Park], honoring the Marquis de Lafayette.” (Phifer)“Lafayette’s contribution to the birth of the United States was formally recognized on July 22, 2002, when Congress conferred honorary citizenship on the hero ‘who gave aid to the United States in a time of need.’ He is one of only six foreign citizens so recognized.” (“Lafayette: Citizen of Two Worlds”)

I can't talk fellowship to you who are gathered here. Too much blood has been spilled. I know from my experience it is up to the working people to save themselves. The only way they can save themselves is by a strong working-class movement.”

The strike was during the Progressive Era, and these women later went on to support causes such as women’s suffrage.

women’s labor unions did not achieve often.

New Deal” policies. ​​​​

n improved wages, better hours, vacation days, increased pay for overtime, and more.

closed shop

Attempting to handle the situation diplomatically, they made demands, the biggest of which was a closed, union-only shop.

poor conditions,

were in

Blanck and Harris bribed prostitutes, fighters, and police officers to harass, abuse, and arrest the strikers.

various

general strike

to decide

ay’!”

The

The Causes

, and

not gaining reforms for some factories like

superiors

were forced

In August 1775, Vergennes sent Bonvouloir on a secret mission "to reassure Americans against the fear which no doubt is being raised against us:""[T]hey must understand that [...] rather than envying them their liberty and independence that they are working to acquire, we admire on the contrary the grandeur and nobility of their efforts and that [...] we shall with pleasure see those happy circumstances that allow them to frequent our ports.” ~ Vergennes to Count de Guines, Ambassador to Great Britain, August 7, 1775, Naval Documents of the American RevolutionIn December, Bonvouloir met with the Committee of Secret Correspondence.“I made them no offer whatever, promising them only to render them every service which would depend on me without compromising myself, […] and all by means of my acquaintances […]. They asked me if France would aid them and on what terms. I replied that I believed that France wished them well. But would she aid them? Possibly she might. On what footing? I had no idea; but, if it should happen, it would always be upon just and equitable conditions. Moreover, should they think fitting to do so, they could make their proposals; I had valuable acquaintances, and would undertake to have their demands presented, and nothing further. […] They see me as their liberator.”~ Bonvouloir’s report to Count of Guines, Doniol, I, 267-268

No more threatened by France, the colonists no longer needed British protection.

Gens de mauvaise Foy

“the first world conflict of modern times, the Seven Years’ War” (Bemis, 5).

As a result of the failure of the Treaty of Versailles, World War Two caused millions of deaths. Germany was bitter after having to take the blame for World War I, and caused World War II to begin. After the Second World War ended, the reparations were not as severe, and the world was able to recover from both wars.

azi Party, Adolf Hitler's Political Party

Due to this, his ideas of anti-semitism were spread.

Axis

The Great Depression negatively affected a large portion of the world, and both it and the instability of Germany's government could have been avoided if the Treaty of Versailles did not place such harsh war reparations. Germany was struggling to repay its debt and the Great Depression worsened Germany's conditions.

The Great Depression Courtesy of Forbes

re

hid the fact

WWI's catalyst was the shooting of the Archduke of Austria Hungary by a Serbian Nationalist

Germany's declaration was the breaking point in all the diplomatic tension, and was the shove that pushed the world into war.

caused the

but the central government was led by Prussian Kaiser Frederick Wilhelm I. He was succeeded by Wilhelm III, and then Wilhelm II in 1888. Wilhelm II was determined to make Germany a major world power

~ Harold Nicholson, British Diplomat

communication strategy

Disney

“The studio regularly coordinates film productions with the military, and service members and their families enjoy discounts at Disney’s theme parks.” (Collins)For instance, a special exhibition (now on hold because of Covid) will offer “a retrospective of The Walt Disney Studios’ extensive contributions to the Allies’ World War II effort” and "The Walt Disney Family Museum is honored to provide free admission to the museum and this exhibition year-round for active and retired military personnel and their spouses and dependents with valid ID.” (The Walt Disney Family Museum)"The Walt Disney Studios and World War II" (​​​​​​​The Walt Disney Family Museum)“The museum is humbled and honored to mount the first major exhibition to explore in depth The Walt Disney Studios’ involvement in the second world war effort.This rarely-shared period in the Studios’ history offers insight into the creativity, innovation, and positivity that Walt and his team brought to the military leaders, troops, and civilians at home and abroad.”                                                   ~ Kirsten Komoroske, Executive Director of The Walt Disney Family Museum

,

“For their promotion of wartime allegiance and good citizenship [during World War II],

A Godsend for Disney

was a threat for Hitler with its subversive potentia

Der Fuehrer’s Face

enemy

Victory

because if you cut your enemy down to size, they are less of a threat

Disney’s educational shorts were also entertaining, retaining his signature style based on color, fluidity, humor, and emotion.  “If Walt Disney has anything to say about it, U.S. World War II propaganda will be leavened with a humor and an artistry that were absent from World War I's.” ~ "The New Pictures, Feb. 9, 1942”

Americans were deeply attached to Disney’s iconic characters, and this emotional connection facilitated trust. By inciting positive responses to their messages, Disney’s heroes were efficient aides to the U.S. government.

, giving them for free.​​​​​​​

Disney’s characters were largely enlisted to promote government-sponsored attitudes aiding in the war effort

Relying on military experts’ advice, Disney’s training films were technically accurate and imparted crucial knowledge to the soldiers.

.

With

their

Disney’s films aided the U.S. government in mobilizing the whole country.His educational shorts encouraged Americans to do their part in the war effort, also convincing them that the war was worth fighting.​​His Good Neighbor films promoted solidarity within the Americas.

S. Army training films similar to the Navy's.” (“The New Pictures, Feb. 9, 1942”.)

"Inkwells as Weapons of War"

heralded

Disney's Goodwill Tour to South America

part of Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy.

Walt and El Grupo​​​​​​​)

Disney and 16 of his artists

,

As the U.S. joined the war, the Disney studio was requisitioned by the army and became “a war plant” (Nater). 

From the start,

citizen artist

government stepped in

Well,

Disney’s Artists Still on Strike” (CSUN California State University Northridge)

at what he cast as a communist disruption

were

It all started when Disney changed his birth certificate to participate in America's effort in World War I.

.

during WWII 

me

Versailles:

The Intended Peace Communication of Ideal and Imperial Perspectives That Spurred Nazism and World War II Tragedies

The

“The museum is humbled and honored to mount the first major exhibition to explore in depth The Walt Disney Studios’ involvement in the second world war effort.This rarely-shared period in the Studios’ history offers insight into the creativity, innovation, and positivity that Walt and his team brought to the military leaders, troops, and civilians at home and abroad.”                                                   ~ Kirsten Komoroske, Executive Director of The Walt Disney Family Museum

for its war-time communication

“The number of tax returns filed skyrocketed from 7.7 million in 1939 to 36.7 million in 1942 according to the Tax Foundation, a tax-policy think tank.” (Waxman).​​​

to convince them that the war was worth fighting.

“Throughout the early 1940s, Disney churned out military training films, educational shorts (provided to the U.S. government at cost), and military insignia for over 1,000 different units in the U.S. armed forces (provided free of charge). Disney’s entire stable of characters was employed in the name of patriotism.” ~ Bemis

The insignia characters for the Flying Tigers and the PT boat Mosquito Squadron in the sky represent two of more than 1,200 designs created at the Disney studio.”

Walt Disney’s cartoon production has become the most ambitious single part of Hollywood’s contribution to the war effort.”                                                                                                                                                                                                             ~ The New York Times, June 1942 (Brady)

Disney’s use of “inkwells as weapons of war” is perfectly encapsulated in this Coronet illustration

greatly aided in this communication.

It gives me a chance to get away from this god-awful nightmare. I have a case of the D.D.s—disillusionment and discouragement.”                     

Giving cartoons

a year later

boosted the U.S. government’s communication,