This melting has been especially strong in late summer, leaving large parts of the Arctic Ocean ice-free for weeks at a time and raising questions about effects on ecosystems, commercial shipping routes, oil and gas exploration, and national defense
Arctic sea ice was lost at a rate of almost 13% per decade, and over the past 30 years, the oldest and thickest ice in the Arctic has declined by a stunning 95%. Sea ice loss has far-reaching effects around the world.
Rising temperatures due to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations have produced distinct pat-terns of warming on Earth’s surface, with stronger warming over most land areas and in the Arctic.
because of the greenhouse gases released as people burn fossil fuels.
simulate the Earth’s climate.
A climate model is a computer simulation of the Earth's climate system, including the atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice; through solving the relevant mathematical equations, the climate model can calculate how the state of the atmosphere and ocean evolves.
climate models?
Climate models are systems of differential equations based on the fundamental laws of physics, fluid motion, and chemistry. To “run” a model, scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid, apply the basic equations, and evaluate the results. Three common types of simple climate models:
La Niña
La Niña creates water abundance, including flooding.
It episodes the normal patterns of tropical precipitation and atmospheric circulation are disrupted, hence triggering extreme climate events around the globe: droughts, floods and affecting the intensity and frequency of hurricanes.
El Niño
El Niño creates water shortages that reduce crop planting areas, delay planting seasons, and generally lower crop yields. such as With catastrophic floods, hurricanes and cyclones in countries on the western part of the Pacific and, on the other hand, bushfires and droughts along the west coast of the USA and East Africa.
How do we know the current warming trend isn’t caused by the Sun?
Longer-term estimates of solar irradiance have been made using sunspot records and other so-called “proxy indicators,” such as the amount of carbon in tree rings.
As the ice melts, less sunlight is reflected back to space and more is absorbed into the dark ocean, causing further warming and further melting of ice
Temperatures nearer the poles remain cool relative to the equator.
an inherent time lag in the warming that is caused by a given climate forcing.
Climate lag is defined as a delay that can occur in a change of some aspect of climate due to the influence of a factors.
ommunities have taken action to reduce the concentrations of certain air pollutants
For example,
agriculture contributes nitrous oxide and methane.
For example, Flooded rice paddies also emit methane because water prevents oxygen from reaching the soil, triggering a build-up of methane-emitting bacteria.
Deforestation
It causes climate change, desertification, soil erosion, fewer crops, flooding, increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and a host of problems for indigenous people
CO2 has a much larger overall warming effect than methane
Methane has more than 80 times the warming power of carbon dioxide over the first 20 years after it reaches the atmosphere.
a forensic-style analysis of the CO2
It proves this CO2 is from burning fossil fuels, not from living ecosystems.
the chemical “fingerprint” of carbon from fossil fuels
Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels carries a different chemical fingerprint from that released by natural sources such as respiration and volcanoes. This makes it possible to identify the contribution of human activity to greenhouse gas production
uman activities have increased the atmospheric concentrations of other important greenhouse gases as we
The increase across the whole of 2020 was around 2.3 ± 0.3 ppm. This is slightly less than the growth in 2019, which was 2.5 ± 0.2 ppm, and also less than the increase of 2.9 ppm seen in both 2015 and 2016.
Keeling Curve
The Keeling Curve is a graph that shows the ongoing change in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere.
How do we know that humans are causing g
Climate scientists say they are 95 percent certain that human influence has been the dominant cause of global warming since 1950.
EPA tracks total U.S. emissions by publishing the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, they found that he largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities in the United States is from
The Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle. Carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. The carbon atoms 'flow' between various 'reservoirs' in the Earth system in this process.
was the first to calculate the warming power of excess carbon dioxide (CO2)
in 1859, John Tyndall published a series of studies on the way greenhouse gases including carbon dioxide trapped heat in the Earth's atmosphere
In 1896, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius was the first to link a rise in carbon dioxide gas from burning fossil fuels with a warming effect.
Amplification of the Greenhouse Effect
Amplified warming: Warming of extreme temperatures over land , it causes the most severe impacts on human health, wildfire risk and food production.
reenhouse gases comprise only a tiny fraction of Earth’s atmosphere,
Greenhouse gases:
1.Carbon dioxide (0.04%), nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for almost 0.1% of Earth's atmosphere and have an appreciable greenhouse effect. 2 was about 0.45.
2.From 1990 to 2019, the total warming effect from greenhouse gases added by humans to the Earth's atmosphere increased by 45%.
How do we know that greenhouse gases
The greenhouse effect: Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, including water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, absorb heat energy and emit it in all directions (including downwards), keeping Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere warm. Adding more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere enhances the effect, making Earth’s surface and lower the atmosphere even warmer.
These gases are resulted from burning fossil fuels like coal, and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.
rack global environmental changes
Developed countries must also significantly ramp up climate finance to developing countries for the world to achieve the Paris Agreement’s climate goal.
The Climate Action Tracker (CAT) is an independent scientific analysis produced by two research organisations tracking climate action since 2009. We track progress towards the globally agreed aim of holding warming well below 2°C, and pursuing efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C.
NOAA’
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NASA’s Global Surface Temperature Record Esti-mates of global surface temperature change, relative to the average global surface temperature for the period from 1951 to 1980, which is about 14°C (57°F) from NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies show a warming trend over the 20th century.
According to Annual Climate Report the combined land and ocean (2020), temperature has increased at an average rate of 0.13 degrees Fahrenheit ( 0.08 degrees Celsius) per decade since 1880; however, the average rate of increase since 1981 (0.18°C / 0.32°F) .
he overwhelming majority of climate scientists agree that human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), are responsible for most of the climate change currently being observed.
Global warming is an aspect of climate change, referring to the long-term rise of the planet's temperatures. It is caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly from human activities such as:
limit the magnitude of climate change and adapt to its impacts.
For example, to adapt to the impacts of climate change, the community-based management programs for forests, rangelands, and national parks can provide significant benefits by saving large-scale investments in infrastructure like dams and irrigation to limit flooding, provide water for agriculture, and generate electricity if constructed and appropriately managed.
Enormous progress has been made in increasing our understanding of climate change and its causes, and a clearer picture of current and future impacts is emerging.
Climate change aggravates the effects of population growth, poverty, and rapid urbanisation.
Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society.
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the influence of human beings on the world's ecosystem. For example, human beings have deeply altered the environment, and exploiting the species directly by fishing, hunting, and changing the biogeochemical cycles.
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, for example, aims to create legally mandated green jobs for every rural household in our country.
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas.
biopiracy
Biopiracy happens when researchers or research organizations take biological resources without official sanction.
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library.
The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) project, initiated in India in 2001, is a collaboration between the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ministry of Science and Technology, and the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, of India.
the Group of Like Minded Mega diverse Countries (LMMCs)
The Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries (LMMC) is a group of countries that harbour the majority of the Earth's species and are therefore considered extremely biodiverse. They are rich in biological diversity (60-70% of the world's biodiversity) and associated traditional knowledge.
ndian efforts for biodiversity conservation
Important Indian Acts passed related to Environment and Bio Diversity:
he opening of the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992
The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993, recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of biological diversity is “a common concern of humankind” and is an integral part of the development process.
Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation It is being recognized that no legal provisions can be effective unless local communities are involved in planning, management and monitoring conservation programmes.
Community participation in biodiversity conservation is a critical aspect of environmental management. If the community is actively participating in any programs or projects, this will eventually lead to the continuous implementation of the projects.
-situ conservation
Ex situ conservation :aims to support species survival in the wild by contributing genetic material for reintroduction.
Situ conservation: includes the protection and conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats while maintaining and recovering the viable populations of the species in their natural surroundings itself.
Wetlands
Wetlands continuously remove and store atmospheric carbon and plants take it out of the atmosphere and convert it into plant tissue, and ultimately into soil when they die and decompose.
Medicines originating from wild species
For Example, Taxol, used to treat breast, ovarian, and other cancers, comes from the Pacific yew tree, which grows along the US West Coast.
A balance between the environment, development and society results to sustainable development which ensures biodiversity conservation.
In order to achieving the interrelated economic, social, and environmental aims of sustainable human development.
institutions/policy
In 2005 a process was started to establish the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). It was finally established in 2012 as a United Nations body.
control human population which will result in biodiversity conservation
Population growth and increasing resource consumption affect biodiversity in two ways:
However, these trends can be offset by stabilizing population growth, using the Earth's natural resources more efficiently, and recycling and controlling pollution.
large-scale climate variations such as "El Nino"
El Nino" is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
El Niño effects Severe drought and associated food insecurity, flooding, rains, and temperature rises causing a wide range of health problems, including disease outbreaks, malnutrition, heat stress and respiratory diseases. Coral bleaching events: During El Niño years, a swath of warm ocean water sweeps across the entire Pacific basin from west to east, leaving bleached and dying corals in its wake.
mobile phones
and Cell towers
ome of the ecological impacts of the invasion include hybridization
hybridization can decrease diversity through the breakdown of reproductive barriers which lead to extinction.
electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation: is light that travels by oscillating in waves at a constant speed carrying energy.
nitrous oxide emissions contributing to global climate change, and air pollution by NO in urban areas
Also, Toxic organic pollutants cause several environmental problems to our environment.
Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the discharge of heated water into bodies of water from different activities:
inorganic and organic pollutants
the difference between organic and inorganic pollutants: Organic pollution: occurs naturally
Inorganic pollution: results from human interaction due to radiant energy and noise, heat, or light such as fluoride in the water supply, which is used to help teeth health.
Most industrial fisheries are either fully or overexploited,
FAO Reports 87% of the World's Fisheries are Overexploited or Fully Exploited.
Natural habitats are often destroyed through human activity
such as human activity for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production, mining, logging, and urban sprawl.
Habitat destruction
Habitat destruction is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species.
Biodiversity is declining
Cause of biodiversity loss: Climate change. Pollution. Destruction of habitats. Invasive alien species. Overexploitation of the natural environment. Extinction of species. Threat to human beings. Proliferation of pests.
species extinction
Reasons from species extinctions:
1.Extinctions happen when a species dies out from cataclysmic events, evolutionary problems, or human interference.
2.Humans also cause other species to become extinct by hunting, overharvesting, introducing invasive species to the wild, polluting, and changing wetlands and forests to croplands and urban areas
Wild species enhance our appreciation and enjoyment of the environment
The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure the survival of these species, and to educate people on living sustainably with other species.
Biodiversity underpins ecosystem resilience
The biologically diverse communities can adapt to a changing environment to adapt production systems to emerging challenges and is a critical resource to increase output sustainably.
food chains
Each level of a food chain represents a different trophic level as organisms are related to each other by the food they eat.
Regulation of biochemical cycles
To maintain the biochemical cycles: 1.Avoid using phosphorus fertilizers and nitrogen fertilizers.
Biodiversity plays an important role in the way ecosystem function
Biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, and wastewater treatment .
Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest near the equator
Because of of the warm climate and high primary productivity
Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradient in species diversity
70% of the global fish catch is from the Pacific , The Pacific has the most coral reef species in the world
taxa
unit of any rank
Utilitarian benefits
It means the ability of ecosystems to satisfy the economic wants of humans.For example, humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature food , firewood, fibre, construction material, industrial products and products of medicinal importance.
BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY
Species diversity
It contributes to ecosystem health
Genetic diversity:
it is critical for a population to adapt to changing environments
today’s threats to species and ecosystem
The main threats to biodiversity are : invasive alien species, climate change, nutrient loading and pollution, habitat change, and overexploitation.
Biodiversity
This term refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and can encompass the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life.(biological diversity)
Increasing education and training activities
Environmental education can empower individuals, groups, and institutions to properly explore environmental issues and thoughts and activities for environmental sustainability.
Putting the measures to prevent and controlpollution as high priority
Applying Egypt’s National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction to increase the flexibility of the Egyptian community when dealing with the risks and disasters that might be caused by climate change and its impact on different sectors and activities.
measure environmentalhazards inpeople will permit more careful assessments ofexposures and health effects
The environmental hazards measurement to exposures and health effects:
1. Specify the health risk to be addressed in the impact assessment.
2. Specify the measure of exposure and the range of exposure to be considered.
3. Estimate the population exposure distribution.
4. Select appropriate health outcome(s).
Role of international conferences andscientific societies
The scientific community is key to the process of science. Its members work together, help inspire new ideas, and help motivate each other in scientific knowledge, technology platforms, and international coordinating institutions.
ncorporating smoking con-trols and hazards of smoking in school curricula.
such as local and school-sponsored smoking prevention campaigns.
Putting into action the law prohibitingsmoking in closed places
There are many areas of a building or conveyance where smoking may be allowed and prohibit smoking in public places to improve the health of workers and the general population.
Promot-ing cessation of tobacco use by encouraging andassisting in cessation efforts;
To promote tobacco cessation includes taxation of smoking, mass advertising campaigns in the media, peer education programs, community mobilization, motivational interviewing, health warnings on tobacco products, marketing restrictions, and banning smoking in public places.
Improving systems for handlingmedical hazardous wastes.
Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods.
TobaccoControl
Tobacco control saves lives and reduces health inequalities through the participation in public and partners in national, regional, and global efforts to develop and implement development strategies and plans and achieve goals that prioritize action on tobacco control.
Health SectorReform Program (HSRP) and Healthy Egyptians2010 Initiative were launched since 1996
A successful initiatives include the progress made on the health-related Millennium Development Goals.
Role of the Ministry of Health andPopulation (MOHP)
The Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) is responsible for overall policy formulation, planning, organization, and coordination of the health sector at national, province, district, and community levels.
the Codex Maximum Limits forpesticide residue
It means the maximum residue limit (MRL) is the highest level of a pesticide residue that is legally tolerated in or on food or feed when pesticides are applied correctly under good agricultural Practice
he Pesticide Committee
The Agricultural Pesticides Committee includes a group of experts and heads of researchers in the field of pesticides from institutes and research laboratories of the Agricultural Research Centre and the relevant sectors of the Ministry of Agriculture and a group of pesticide professors in the agricultural colleges of Egypt.
he EgyptianEnvironmental Affairs Agency (EEAA)
The role of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is to introduce and integrate environmental dimensions in all national policies, plans, programs relevant to the protection of human health and management of natural resources.
Strengthening environmental institutions
The institutional framework for sustainable development should integrate the three dimensions of sustainable development in a balanced manner and enhance implementation to strengthen coherence, coordination, avoid duplication of efforts, and review progress in implementing sustainable development.
EnvironmentalProtection Law number 4/1994
The law has been designated as the highest coordinating body in the field of the environment to formulate the general policy and prepare the necessary plans for the protection and promotion of the environment.
Nations need tomake choices about how to deal with such regions;offering technical assistance is an option to speedknowledgetransferandreduceenvironmentalharm
The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and all concerned entities is cooperated to implement the recycling process in the field of waste recycling and using technology to transform wastes into energy.
Recent data showed that 13 million Egyptians aresmoking 85 billion cigarettes annually as comparedto 9 million smokers in 1980.
Approximately 3.4 billion Egyptian pounds a year are spent in dealing with tobacco-related health problems.
The introduction and widespread use of pesticidescontinue in agricultural, commercial, recreational,and home settings.
Using pesticides is the contamination of surrounding soil and water sources and causing loss of biodiversity.
proposed actions
The inspection and monitoring of industrial, irrigation and domestic discharge facilities to ensure compliance with Egyptian laws, while taking into account the country’s development requirements.
The government has begun to introduce new water regulations and replacing outdated and ineffective treatment techniques to improve the quality and availability of treated wastewater.
A new code for the reuse of treated wastewater according to its quality has also been issued.
ake Manzala is considered oneof the most important lakes in Egypt. However, thelake receives heavy loads of organic and inorganicpollutants via several agricultural drains from sixgovernorates (Dakahleya, Sharkia, Qualiobia, Port-Said, Damietta, and Cairo).
Lake Manzala is polluted by heavy metals as it receives mixed discharges from densely populated areas.
Drainage and wastewater from agricul-tural run-off, industrial effluents and domesticsewage are discharged through drains into deltalakes.
water passes through the soil and drainage network, it sorbs salts, agricultural chemicals and other pollutants, leading to differences in the quality of drainage and irrigation water.
agriculturalactivitiesaretheprincipalsourceofeconomy in Egypt,
In 2020, agriculture contributed around 11.51% to the GDP of Egypt, 31.8% came from the industry and 51.65% from the service sector.
ontamination ofwater can result from both industrial and agricul-tural sources. Deficiencies in the treatment of waste-water, the disposal of untreated sewage, and inade-quate operation and maintenance of treatmentplants result in health risks.
About 90% of the rural population have no access to sewer systems for wastewater treatment facilities and they mostly depend on the on-site disposal of wastewater “ septic tank” .
Water pollution is one of the principal environ-mental and public health problems Egypt
Egypt faces a rapidly increasing deterioration of its surface and groundwater due to increasing discharges of heavily polluted domestic and industrial effluents into its waterways. Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture also causes water pollution problems.
Air pollution
The activities to reduce air pollution:
Healthy Egyptians 2010 Initiative.
Now, The Egyptian national health initiatives include providing high-quality care through financially sustainable health insurance, mandatory immunization that eradicated Poliomyelitis in Egypt, combat tuberculosis, developing a national program to prevent and control Viral Hepatitis B/C, and establish the Regional Centre for Women's Health and Development in Alexandria.
The State Ministry of Environment has initiated new policies
The environmental policy of the Government of Egypt seeks to achieve environmental protection by establishing proper institutional, economic, legislative, and technical frameworks at the local, regional, national, and international levels through carrying out institutional and regulatory reforms to implement this national environmental policy objectives.
he Ministry of Health and Population recognized the linkbetween economic development, environment and health
Globally, there are efforts to minimize pollution. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and The Paris Agreement aim to set global guidelines for countries to reduce pollution through initiatives such as the Sustainable Development Goals. Egypt’s Ministry of Health and Population, with a partner with USAID, is working to improve critical areas of intervention to improve healthy behaviors, enhance the quality of health services, and support the Government of Egypt in policy and program design via research monitoring and training.
Egypt shares most of the environmental problems of developing countries. One of the mostimportant health and environmental problems is air pollution resulting from using fuel,burning operations, and the increase of automobile exhaust in cities.
Egypt's environmental problems include:
The governments of most developedcountries have made efforts to reducesmoking and so lower its costs to societyby introducing tobacco taxes, limitingtobacco advertising, and educating peopleabout the risks of smoking.
The governments of most developed countries have made efforts to:
Lifestyle Challenges
Lifestyle diseases share risk factors similar to prolonged exposure to three modifiable lifestyle behaviors: smoking, unhealthy diet, and physical inactivity.
Malaria, a largely preventable and treat-able infectious diseas
Malaria is a severe and sometimes fatal disease that affects the countries :
It affects GDP; Malaria can strain national economics, harming some nations' GDP by as much as an estimated 5 - 6%.
Malaria discourages investments and tourism, affects land-use patterns and crop selection resulting in sub-optimal agricultural production, reduces labor productivity, and impairs learning.
Can the spread ofHIV in developingcountries becurbed?
These include:
an aging population
An aging population affects economies in many ways:
agedependency ratio
The dependency ratio is an age-population ratio of those typically not in the labor force and those in the labor force. It is used to measure the pressure on the productive population.
How are majorhealth riskschanging fordifferent groups of countries?
In developing countries, the major health-related issues are poor water quality, availability, and sanitation; vector-borne diseases; poor ambient and indoor air quality; toxic substances; and global environmental change.
In developed countries, heart disease and stroke are the leading causes of death for adult men and women over 60.
you will find that in generalthe higher a country’s income per capita,the higher is its life expectancy
The higher values of GDP per capita and lower values of infant mortality levels lead to higher life expectancy at birth suggesting that longevity of people in these five countries is increasing.
Investing in education is not only animportant way to build a country’shuman capital and move it closer to theknowledge economy, thus improving itsprospects for economic growth andhigher living standards.
The benefits of investing in education :
the more educated populations are more socially engaged that will impact positively on the society such as reduced costs to the health care system, savings in welfare costs, decreasing costs to the criminal justice system, and increasing rates of volunteerism
It is the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and inequality, and it sets the foundation for sustained economic growth.
The investment in education leads to significant economic returns in terms of salaries and gross domestic product (GDP).
Is there any hopeof bridging thedigital divide?
The digital divide can be bridged through:
OECDProgram for International StudentAssessment (PISA
It improves student learning opportunities and well-being by empowering teachers and school leaders through global connections and international benchmarking based on a standard scale(reading, mathematics and science knowledge and skills to meet real-life challenges) provided by the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
Help school leaders worldwide understand their 15-year old students' abilities to think critically and apply their knowledge creatively in novel contexts.
The gap between developed and devel-oping countries is particularly wide intertiary education
In developing countries, the challenges in the educational system are:
1.The overcrowded classrooms to poor nutrition. 2.The Language barriers, gender roles, and reliance on child labor can all stall progress to provide quality education.
Child labor
The latest ILO global estimates on child labor indicate that Africa has the most significant number of child laborers; 72.1 million African children are estimated to be in child labor and 31.5 million in hazardous work.
Child labor is a challenging phenomenon in Egypt; the latest ILO/ Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) National Child Labour Survey indicates that 1.6 million children are engaged in hazardous or unlawful work among the 1.8 million working children in Egypt.
How does acountry’s economicposition affect itseducation needs?
Education is a critical component of a country's human capital to increase the efficiency of each individual worker and help economies to move up.
It is also key driver for reducing poverty, fostering economic growth, achieving gender equality, and social development.
or low-incomecountries, what arethe main obstaclesto universalprimary education?
when primary education is accessi-ble, poor children may be unable to bene-fit from it.
What can we do to defect the pervasive negative impact of poverty (low income) on the educational system?
Advocate for and support intervention programs that provide academic, social, and community support to raise the success of disadvantaged children and youth;
Make others aware of the short-, medium- and long-term costs of allowing these children and youth to fail or leave school;
3.Advocate for system changes within schools to maximize educational attainment (e.g., longer school days and shorter summer vacations); and
ow per capita income inhibits invest-ment in human (as well as physical)
It results from income inequality, which includes higher rates of health and social problems, lower rates of social goods, lower population-wide satisfaction and happiness, and lower level of economic growth when human capital is neglected for high-end consumption.
Differences in public spending on edu-cation (relative to GDP) across countriesreflect differences in government effortsto increase national stocks of humancapital.
Public spending includes schools, universities, and other public and private institutions delivering or supporting educational services. For example, At the elementary/secondary level, the United States spent 3.6% of GDP on total expenditures on education institutions in 2017, higher than the average of OECD countries (3.5 %).
capital
The human capital can be developed through coaching, continuing education, job training, and leadership training by education, training, medical treatment. It is effective as the human capital strategy that states education and health to increase labor productivity.
Investing in people through nutrition, health care, quality education, jobs and skills helps develop human capital to end extreme poverty and create more inclusive societies
Governments, workers, and employersinvest in human capital by devotingmoney and time to education and train-ing (to accumulating knowledge andskills
Education can increase the human capital in the labor force, which increases labor productivity and thus leads to a higher level of output to promote entrepreneurship and technological advances.
How arethey different
Human resources are different from physical capital as :
Human beings can use additional resources to give out productive output. For example, a Healthy and educated human population is known as human capital formation; it contributes significantly to a nation's economy.
Physical capital depends on human resource use and cannot give any productive output.
How are humancapital andphysical capitalsimilar?
Both are similar in the initial investment amount as human capital, and physical capital requires an initial investment. For example, acquire human capital we spend on education, training, etc. Similarly, we need to spend money to possess physical capital.
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AO Director-General Jaques Dioufappealed to national governments andthe international community to createan international Alliance against Hungerthat would be based “not on a plea forcharity but on . . . recognizing that thesuffering of 800 million hungry peoplerepresents . . . a threat to economicgrowth and political stability on a globalscale.” Would you agree with the logic ofthis appeal?
Agreed. The international community should take decisive action against the causes and effects of hunger.
international Alliance against Hunger
The Alliance Against Hunger and Malnutrition (AAHM) is a forward-thinking global partnership that links like-minded organizations and institutions involved in the fight against hunger and malnutrition through a network of National and Regional Alliances.
r food-for-work programs
'Food for Work' program was started in the 1970s to raise the standard of living of the poor. It aims to increase income and employment for the poor by creating total assets, utilizing work generation and ensuring goods instead of money.
public food dis-tribution
The Department of Food and Public Distribution is responsible for management of the food economy of the nation. It undertakes various activities, such as procurement of food items, their storage, movement and delivery to the distributing agencies.
Fome Zero(Zero Hunger) Project. Note that Brazilis one of the major exporters of cropsand meat, but over 40 million of its 170million people live on less than $1 a day.
The Zero Hunger Programme (developed by economist and agronomist José Graziano da Silva, then Special Minister for Food Security in Brazil and current FAO Director-General) has been considered one of the significant successes of hunger and poverty reduction international level. It has become a model replicated in some of its components and adapted by countries aiming to follow in the same direction. Also, other programs are launched in brazil as the Bolsa program on 2003.
The main objectives of this Bolsa Família's were to reduce poverty and inequality by providing a minimum income level for extremely low-income families.
Doha round of world trade negotiations
It focuses on achieving major reform of the international trading system through the introduction of lower trade barriers and revised trade rules.
unpredictable nat-ural emergencies.
like Storms, hurricanes, cyclones, and climate shocks that causes experience successive low harvests and destroy agricultural infrastructure.
The conclusion appears to bethat persistent hunger is an issue not ofinsufficient global food production butof extremely unequal distributionamong countries as well as within coun-tries.
It is a direct result of the distribution of populations, natural resources, and the productivity of their use but can be modified by human action. Also, increase in food prices are complex associated with it are harvest failure and climate change.
The low export earnings of thepoorest countries prevent them frombuying enough food in the world mar-kets, but even where food is availableinside a country, the poorest of its citi-zens are often unable to pay for it
This called food insecurity
likeBrazil, specialize in exporting those samefood products that are desperatelyneeded by their own poor andmalnourished. Statistics show that in the world as awhole there is more than enough foodproduced to feed all the hungry.Moreover, they also show that countrieswith smaller proportions of undernour-ished people tend to be more dependenton food imports than countries withmore widespread undernourishment(even though they spend smaller sharesof their export earnings on foodimports). The conclusion appears to bethat persistent hunger is an issue not of
Top agricultural exports include soybeans, sugar, poultry meat, beef and beef products, soybean meal, unroasted coffee, corn, fruit and vegetable juices, tobacco, and pork products.
widespread undernourishmen
According to the USDA, there is a strong connection between hunger and chronic diseases like high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes.
undernourishment
Undernourishment means that a person cannot acquire enough food to meet the daily minimum dietary energy requirements over one year. FAO defines hunger as being synonymous with chronic undernourishment.
relationshipbetween povertyand politicalinstability?
A favorable investment climate
A favorable investment climate is defined by the soundness of macroeconomic policies, the strength of economic and political institutions, the functioning of the legal and regulatory framework, and the quality of infrastructure and services.
“advan-tage of backwardness,
“Advantage of backwardness“: it means that developing countries have a vast space and strong driving force to learn the technology, systems and successful experience from the developed countries when they carry out their own industrialization and modernization.
Can poor countriesbreak the viciouscircle of poverty?
To break the vicious circle of poverty, The government should adopt a balanced growth strategy to remove poverty by increasing the country's job opportunities and increase investment to improve the saving and purchasing power of the people, and establishing new projects to increase the rate of employment.
Economists generally assume that peo-ple’s willingness to save for future con-sumption grows with their incomes
It means increase employee savings
The Vicious Circle of Poverty
The vicious cycle of poverty is known as when a chain of negative events reinforces itself. The situation spirals in a low loop, becoming increasingly worse with time.
The vicious cycle is caused by lacking capital for investment in industries, lacking industrial finance, lacking skilled labor, and lacking transportation and social overhead, etc. The vicious circle of poverty is associated with a low rate of saving and investment on the supply side.
To break the vicious circle of poverty, The government should adopt the balanced growth strategy to remove poverty by increasing the country's job opportunities to improve the saving and purchasing power of the people and establishing new projects to increase the rate of employment.
strong positiverelationship between economic growthand poverty reduction.
Higher economic growth leads to higher tax revenues, enabling the government to spend more on public services, such as health care and education, etc. for promoting higher living standards, such as increased life expectancy and higher rates of literacy.
the developingcountries with the highest percentagesof their population living below theinternational poverty lin
Among Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries,
For example, EastAsia (including China)
China is playing a growing role in the world economy as one of the world's fastest-growing countries and is the tenth-largest exporter. China has become an economic superpower because most big factories are establishing their manufacturing plants in China. The Chinese economic reforms, such as the changes introduced by their government, improve the economy through various reforms and policies. These economic reforms helped them scale up their production so massively that its cost of production has come down drastically.
How can povertyin differentcountries becompared?
Different countries use different poverty lines:
a. The calorie requirement of different human races is different depending on their physical condition and dietary habits. Those races which have greater height and build require higher calories.
b. The per capita income in different countries is also different, i.e., per capita income is higher in developed countries compared to developing countries.<br> c. The standard of living of Western countries is higher than that of developing countries.<br> d.The cost of essential items used in calculating the poverty line is higher in the developed countries. For example, the universal standard for measuring global poverty set the poverty line level at $1.90 a day. It is used to measure the number of people living in extreme poverty and compare poverty levels between countries.
Poverty and Hunger
Poverty causes hunger, and hunger can be viewed as a dimension of extreme poverty. Poverty happens due to the unequal distribution of income and lack of resources in developing countries. For example, millions of people cannot afford the land or farming supplies to grow or otherwise access nutritious food.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals with measurable targets and clear deadlines for improving the lives of the world's poorest people. The historic millennium declaration was signed by leaders of 189 countries at the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000.
The MDG targets for 2015 were set to get us “half way” to the goal of ending hunger and poverty, with similar proportional goals in other fields
The SDGs are designed to finish the job – to get to a statistical “zero” on hunger, poverty, preventable child deaths and other targets.
governmentcorruption
bribery, extortion, embezzlement, and graft are found in local government systems
How can countriesuse their wealthmore effectively for the benefit of their people?
increasing access to international trade can provide markets for the goods produced by less-developed countries and also increase productivity by increasing access to capital resources
Who is primarilyresponsible forcreating the risk of global climatechange?
global warming is directly attributable to human activity
Globalization:
It is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide
Public-Private Ownership
It is an arrangement between two or more public and private sectors of a long-term nature. For example, transfer government financing for public infrastructure to the private sector
Urbanization
Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban areas to form towns and cities as more people begin living and working in central areas.
Urban Air Pollution
air pollution in and around cities
Postindustrialization
It means a transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy
Why is theincidence ofsmoking higher inpoorer countries?
Due to stress is a harmful symptom of poverty and contributes to smoking rates in low-income areas.
What are the socialand economicchallenges thatresult fromdifferentpopulation agestructures?
The challenges includes a lack of resources to provide for the entire global population, the effects of climate change, contamination and population ageing.
Which factorsaccount for mostof the healthimprovements inthe 20th century?
Contaminated food and water resulted in many foodborne infections in the early 20th century. For example, Britain has grown wealthier the diets of many people have become less healthy, with a massive increase in obesity and diseases associated with it, e.g., diabetes.
Health and Longevity
It refers to the linkage between physical, mental, and social well-being for people as they age.
living standards.
Standard of living generally refers to wealth, comfort, material goods, and necessities of certain classes in certain areas.
educationand training have to meet the ever-changing demands of the labor market
The accelerating demand for better-educated workers, and the increased rate of return to education, may create a dual labor market.
n vocational education, employers oftenplay an important role in providing on-the-job training for e
Also, provide grants and loans to promote entrepreneurship through government initiatives .
Education and Human Capital
Higher education is one method of accumulating human capital to enhance the stock of skills, knowledge, and social and personality attributes that influence people's ability to produce economic value from their labor
How can globalhunger beeliminated for good?
How can global hunger be eliminated for good?
When individuals and families have access to food, are educated about nutrition and how to be healthy, and can grow more crops and sell more harvests, they can be self-sufficient and resilient to future crises.
Undernourishment
Undernourishment means that a person is not able to acquire enough food to meet the daily minimum dietary energy requirements, over a period of one year.
many of theconditions needed to attract foreigninvestment to a country are the same as those needed to stimulate domesticinvestment
For example, Governments give tax breaks to industries in which it wants to encourage investment.
What is poverty?
1.Relative Poverty refers to the standard of living compared to economic standards of living within the same surroundings.
Situational poverty is a period wherein an individual falls below the poverty line because of a sudden event.
Generational Poverty is defined as a family having lived in poverty for at least two generations.
Rural poverty , includs factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the poverty found there.
Urban poverty refers to the set of economic and social difficulties found in industrialized cities because of low levels of education or skills, lack of employment opportunities, low wages, large family size, and lack of basic amenities.
What is poverty?
Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living, so the income level from employment is so the person can't meet low basic human needs.
the needs of future genera-tions
The rights of future generations can be divided into two main categories: environmental rights (sustainable development) and bioethical rights (protection of the human condition)
Sustained economic growth in develop-ing countries is a critical tool for reduc-ing poverty and improving most people’sstandard of living.
Sustainable economic growth means a rate of growth that can be maintained without creating other significant financial problems, especially for future generations, as clearly a trade-off between rapid economic growth today and growth in the future.
How has theeconomic gapbetween developedand developingcountries changedover the past fewdecades?
The economic gap between developed and developing countries is generally caused by rich countries being able to exploit the poorer countries as they have the dominant political power to do so. As a result, the poorer countries suffer from a lack of resources and spiral into poverty cycles which widen the development gap.
They do not account forpollution, environmental degradation,and resource depletion
GDP includes what is spent on environmental protection, healthcare, and education, but it does not include actual levels of environmental cleanliness, health, and learning
to ensure that future generationsinherit the necessary conditions to pro-vide for their own welfare, our present-day values must be educated enough toreflect their interests as well.
Future generations should focus on peace and security, the environment, the worst risks of all, governance, and the knowledge base.
economic growth,
economic growth is the increase or improvement in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time.
quality of life
QoL embodies overall well-being and happiness, including access to school, work opportunities, absence of military conflict or threats, as well as good physical and emotional health.
Human Rights Up Front” programme
Human Rights up Front (or HRuF) is an internal campaign within the United Nations; it was launched by then Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. the goal : ensure that human rights approach to prevention of atrocities and serious rights violations.
The Ministry of Water has installed close to 500 handwashing points in Nairobi, including 56 in informal settle-ments; and the UN has provided soap for distribution and is working to increase water supply to 30,000 people in five informal settlements
the international human rights mechanisms
The international human rights mechanisms include the Human Rights Council (HRC), its Special Procedures (independent experts and working groups) and Universal Periodic Review (UPR), and the Treaty Bodies.
UN Human Rights has built global credibility by being a principled advocate for international human rights standards.
United Nations Human Rights Council has independent investigators who have circled globally to assess problems, help prevent abuses, and offer solutions around the world.
UN Human Rights Due Diligence Policy (HRDDP)
The UN Human Rights Due Diligence Policy across departments, agencies, funds, and programs was developed in the interagency guidance note in 2015 to be applied in different countries as a mandatory context. It includes many examples and samples for :
technology con-ference, underscoring the importance of safeguards on new technologies, includ-ing artificial intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence (AI) could offer significant opportunities to advance human rights across many areas of life, such as facilitating more personalized education. On the other hand, AI can also threaten the right to equality, the prohibition of discrimination, and the right to privacy.
killing of human rights defenders, journalists or trade unionists
From 2015 to 2019, the UN tracked at least 1,940 killings and 106 enforced disappearances of human rights defenders, journalists and trade unionists across 81 countries.
Reach out to marginalized and discrim-inated groups, including by building bridges with local partners to connect them to government and UN analysis and evidence gathering and country strategy formulation process to ensure that their needs and concerns are taken into account
NHRI
National Human Rights Institutions(NHRI)
we engage with and support the Human Rights System in their work relating to the human rights implications of COVID-19. We help to integrate the work of national human rights institutions, human rights mechanisms (treaty bodies, the Human Rights Council, Universal Peri-odic Review, and special procedures), and human rights NGOs in the COVID-19 response.
The international collaboration between countries and their human rights institutions will reduce inequalities overtime at the local, national, regional, and global levels, progressively and strengthen the linkages with the international human rights mechanisms.
Align UN Human Rights’ own oper-ations with sustainable development through an internal process to main-stream sustainability throughout its planning.
The SDGs agenda offers critical opportunities to further advance human rights for all people everywhere, without discrimination. The SDGs have resulted from international human rights law.
In response to the pandemic, the UN system has developed a Socio-Eco-nomic Response Framework (SERF) to COVID-19.
For example, In Myanmar, The initiative led b the World Health Organization, and the humanitarian response and the Humanitarian Country Team to implement three critical components of socio-economic impacts of COVID-19 are : Save lives Protect people and rebuild better Complement the health response
the environment and COV ID-19
Follow a human rights-based approach to the COVID-19 crisis to address its unequal impacts on the poor, vulnerable and marginalized and its underlying drivers, including environmental degradation.
en hanced climate action aiming at carbon neutrality by 2050,
To support the shift of private finance and private investment in developing countries to make them low-carbon and climate-resilient through public development banks. The public development banks can play a vital role in investing and offering opportunities to improve governance and regulatory frameworks in the countries where they operate to bring much-needed capital for implementing sustainable developmental strategies.
calls for a sustained and global effort to take action to address environmental degradation.
UNEP's main activities are related to: 1.Climate change. including the Territorial Approach to Climate Change (TACC) 2.Disasters and conflicts. 3.Ecosystem management. 4.Environmental governance. 5.Environment under review.
Shielding a population from extreme poverty would give people a buffer when disaster strikes, and pro-viding more robust health services would help people better protect themselves.
The vaccines, improved therapeutics, or rapid testing for COVID-19 must be allocated equitably to low-income and crisis-affected populations
What COVID-19 has done is worsen the situation by undermining the mech-anisms people need to defend themselves, threatening the lives of the most margin-alized and vulnerable and plunging the world into its worst recession since World War II.
The international community, both States and non-state actors have a critical role in preventing and mitigating the human rights impact of the crisis and ensuring that the measures are taken to support the economic recovery comply with human rights standards.
The international community responds effectively to critical human rights situations and issues
The International human rights law lays down obligations through becoming parties to international treaties to respect, protect, and fulfill human rights.
In a wide range of countries in every region – working with support from colleagues from across the UN – we have ensured that human rights priorities, and our human rights checklists, are fully integrated into global and national COVID-19 response plans
For example, In many countries civil society and NHRIs have played critical roles on the frontlines of the COVID-19 response and providing essential advice to influence emergency and long-term policy making.
Enhancing equality and countering discrimination
Promoting equality protects individuals who experience discrimination by association with someone who has a protected characteristic.
Development Integrating human rights in sustainable developmen
Human beings depend on the environment to be safe, clean, healthy, and sustainable to reach the full enjoyment of many human rights, including the rights to life, health, food, water, and sanitation.
Peace and security Supporting early warning, prevention and protection of human rights in situations of conflict and insecurity
The community can mobilize and make aware the people of their rights and also allow any victim of human rights violations to face the law and seek justice.
Enhancing and protecting civic space and people’s participation
Participation improves the efficacy of political systems and policy development and implementation by rights holders and organizations.
Accountability Strengthening the rule of law and accountability for human rights violations
The rule of law and accountability for human rights violations are critical for preventing violations, conflict, and violence, building and sustaining peace, and achieving inclusive development.
International human rights mechanisms
The international human rights mechanisms include the Human Rights Council (HRC), its Special Procedures (independent experts and working groups) and Universal Periodic Review (UPR), and the Treaty Bodies
Engage in dialogue with governments in order to secure respect for all human rights
Both civil and political rights as well as social, economic and cultural rights that governments are take in consideration :
1.Right to Equality. 2.Freedom from Discrimination. 3.Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security. 4.Freedom from Slavery.