The men’s medical records suggest that many who survived into the antibiotic era either found their way to curative penicillin, although very late in the disease process, because of other ills,

The most significant results to come out of the Stateville exper-iments were two new drugs effective in the treatment of malaria.The first was pentaquine, in 1947

“Flu really was an equal opportunity disease,” says Navarro

Yet human nature being what it is, some people came out looking worse for the experience. In San Francisco, the facemask became the weapon of choice in the city’s crusade against the pandemic.

On the same day, Commissioner John Dill Robertson said that the shortage of good nursing staff had accounted for many deaths.

they still cannot pinpoint where the disease started (despite being called “Spanish” influenza) or why its victims were overwhelmingly young.

675,000 people estimated to have died of flu or pneumonia in the United States in the fall of 1918 and the winter of 1919.

Inexplicably, the virus was more devastating to people between twenty and forty, a cohort that does not generally die of flu so readily as the very young and old

August 1918. The city’s health commissioner, Dr. William C. Woodward, had closed the public schools, theaters, and dance halls; so many people were sick, makeshift hospitals had to be built to accommodate them. There was an acute shortage of civilian medical personnel because many doctors and nurses had been called up to serve in the war.

On September 12, 1918, Dr. Royal S. Copeland put the entire Port of New York City under quarantine.

African Americans understood the possibilities of eugenics: it went from being a strategy of racial improvement to a tool of racial violence.

Though many of us think of compulsory sterilization as cruel and inhumane, Taylor and T.E.B. understood it as part of a strategy for biologically uplifting the race. Taylor saw it as a temporary plan until African Americans could learn and embrace their eugenic possibilities.

Cobb actually argued that the collective stock of the race had improved as a result of racial oppression!

African American physicians, biologists, and social scientists used the language of eugenics and reproductive control to frame their scholarship on racial improvement.

African Americans of different socioeconomic classes embraced the possibilities of eugenics for racial improvement.

Their strategies for human improvement often had negative consequences for marginalized people like African Americans, people with disabilities, and gender nonconforming folks.

The Nuremberg Code has not been officiallyadopted in its entirety as law by any nation or as eth-ics by any major medical association.

Their Hippocratic view of medical re-search may have prevented them from adequatelyappreciating the risks to research subjects, which aremany times greater than the risks to patients who aremerely being treated.21 Hippocratic ethics, evenwhen supplemented with informed consent, tend tosubmerge the subject’s autonomy into what the phy-sician-investigator thinks is best for the subject.

sophisticated set of 10research principles centered not on the physician buton the research subject.

Ivy presented to the judgesthree research principles that he had formulated atthe request of the American Medical Associationand which, he said, reflected common research prac-tices.1

Leibbrand insisted that such a view preclud-ed any human relation between physicians and theirpatients and that it represented a perversion ofHippocratic ethics and “a lack of morality and rev-erence for human life.”12

lexandergave Taylor a memorandum entitled “Ethical andNon-Ethical Experimentation on Human Beings,”in which he identified three ethical, legal, and scien-tific requirements for the conduct of human experi-mentation.9

For the United States and its chief prosecutor, Tel-ford Taylor, the trial was a murder trial (and murderhad been identified by the International MilitaryTribunal as a crime against humanity)

judges fromthe four allied powers (the United States, Britain,France, and the former Soviet Union) and wascharged with trying Germany’s major war criminals.

THE NUREMBERG CODE

It served as a blueprint for today’s principles that en-sure the rights of subjects in medical research.

esson study’s enormouspotential.

Lesson study is used today in Ja-pan as a strategy for planned educa-tional change.11

The result was a pro-duction system whose power lay inthe frugal way it harmonized workand human effort.

joint venturewith Toyota, it reemerged as NUMMI(New United Motor Manufacturing,Inc.), and it quickly became the mod-el for the U.S. auto industry

While most employees said theyvalued the training, it was of littleuse to them back on the job becausethe complex design and productionsystem remained unchanged. Em-ployees felt that they had little con-trol over the system, and so they tooklittle responsibility for product qual-ity.

necessity of first changing theirwork systems before any deeper cul-tural change is possible

Not surpris-ingly, between 1900 and 1930 schooladministrators began to regard them-selves as managers rather than edu-cators.

Dailywork routines, prescribed by worksystems, have a powerful shaping in-fluence on an organization’s under-lying culture.

“lesson study,” an ideathat has recently migrated to the U.S.from Japan.1Teachers work collabo-ratively as they develop lessons. Thenthey teach the lessons while observ-ing one another to see how well theirlessons work. This feedback enablesteachers to make a series of refine-ments.

Because they are lit-tle more than symbolic political gestures designed to win the confi-dence of voters.

Restructur ing must fundamentally alter the way schools do business

here is increasing evidence that schools are products of the Dolitical cultures of states and districts.9 An atomized state policy and political culture will re produce similar conditions at the local level.

The conditions that favor an integrated response to restruc turing are illustrated by the experience of the schools in Dade County. There, a strong commitment to locating decision making authority at the school level existed from the start. Both the union and the district provided individual schools with political and technical support. Both the district and the union supported schools' seeking waivers from district regulations or from the union contract. Schools were given the flexibility to experiment with different organizational arrangements. The district's bureaucratic structure was changed to accommodate decentralized decision making.

The most important changes made by the council involve the redefinition of roles and social arrangements in the school. For example, parents who serve on the council have a direct voice regard ing allocation of resources.

e recognized the centrality of teachers in defin ing the nature of the school work place, and he realized that funda mental changes in the culture of schooling require new ways of thinking about schools, new moti vations for teachers, and new ways of learning for young peo ple.

e image of the "real school" is a powerful one. Any change per ceived as a significant departure from that image is certain to meet with resistance. T

hey saw that, as a result of restructuring, improvements had occurred in teaching, curriculum, student per formance, and morale.

change is measured by an accretion of new activities. If re structuring is limited to the creation of new rules and pro cedures, the result is likely to be an elaboration of rituals or the replacement of one set of rituals by another. The ways in which schools approach implementation of new programs or practices, therefore, define the shape of restructuring.

he hierarchical culture of schools is clearly evident in the high degree of role differentiation and specialization within them. T

Advocates of restructuring argue that real change in the or ganization of schools cannot occur without fundamental chang es in the culture of schools, which defines their ideas, com mitments, and social order and which determines their rules and standard operating procedures.4

Bureaucratic decentralization (whether in the form of school site management, a choice plan, or some variation on privati zation) lies at the heart of restructuring

. On the national level, the Educa tion Commission of the States, the National Governors' As sociation, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), and the National Education Association (NEA) are all promoting some form of school restructuring among their members.

Ninety-nine per cent of business respondents said business could play "a major role in improving the quality of education"; 98 per cent of school boards responding agreed.

Shifting power from educators and elected decision-makers to representatives of each schools' "clients" is not only consistent with a market-place ideology, it ensures local decision-makers will be isolated and more inclined to worry about school level issues than macro-level policies.

The "skills deficiency" argument still fuels much debate about public educa- tion, and justifies re-tooling the curriculum to give greater prominence to "skill sets" related to employment. Turning the public towards their schools - while simultaneously blaming schools for having created the nation's economic woes has its advantages, both for corporations and for politicians.

the real challenge is to design and maintain policies that structure and control school choice in fair and socially desirable ways. School choice is neither a panacea nor a single policy. Its effects depend crucially on the specifics of how each choice policy is designed, and on complex relationships between the policy, those affected by it, and the socio-cultural context within which these relationships take place.

Briefly, a charter school is "an autonomous, results-oriented, publicly funded school of choice that is designed and run by teachers or others under contract with a public sponsor" (Buechler, 1996, p. 4).

This balance of forces has produced laws, policies, and social behavior that combine to make government and private schools equal in prestige, financing, and social support.

Under a competitive delivery system, he contends that social and educational goals can be protected and pursued through specific regulations and incentives aimed, for example, at such things as encouraging "appropriate social values" or a socially diverse student body.

In the U.S., widespread political support for market-based educational provi- sion only came in the late 1980s, when the social climate had substantially shifted, from focusing upon educational equity and access to a concern for academic excel- lence to foster national economic competkiveness. 7

They believe that competition will cause schools to improve, that a wider range of schooling choices will become available, that the poor will be freed from the shackles of public bureaucracies and empowered (like the afflu- ent) to chose good schools to attend,

alter the institutional structure of schools (their incen- tives, accountability mechanisms, and ultimately, their culture), not merely their organizational arrangements.

Since a problem for all organizational change is finding the incentives to overcome the status quo, the dynamics unleashed by market forces appeal to many policy makers. At the same time, choice and market forces challenge core beliefs about the non-competitive structure and democratic purposes of public schools.

no conclusive evidence that parent choice has a decisive effect, either positive or negative, on the quality of schooling. Evidence is extensive, however, that choice may have either a posi- tive or negative effect upon equity,

Thus, schools’ enduring social responsibilities to educate youth exists in constant, though mutable tension with corporations’ economic responsibilities to maximize wealth and power. For school and business leaders to collaborate honestly and effectively, they must grapple with the realities of fundamentally different organi-zational logics.

These hidden markets have generated large and growing rev-enues for hyper-concentrated wealth in the United States.

Corporate phi-lanthropy is seen as a commercial or public relations tool to infiltrate, and initiate market-oriented change in local com-munities while seeking direct economic or indirect social rewards (e.g., public goodwill) for a cause-related corporate agenda

As a result of increasingly commercial-ized dominant culture, Schor (2004) asserts, “American teens and tweens have emerged as the most brand-oriented, consumer involved, and materialistic generations in history” (p. 13).

Through funding of educational research and policy, newer and older philanthropies serve as a loose grouping of powerful players driving U.S. and global educational change.

power dynamics between schools and corporations pose enormous challenges to achieving mutually beneficial rela-tionships (Selsky & Parker, 2005)

The dominant perspective in research, governance, and pub-lic opinion on PPPs suggests the judicious melding of public (educational) and private (business) interests in mutual rela-tionships that aim to “do good” and promote short- or long-term benefits to all involved parties, for instance, in the sharing of key resources across organizations and the ability to pursue objectives that could not be achieved working alone

PPPs as “cooperative institu-tional arrangements between public and private sector actors” (Hodge, Greve, & Boardman, 2010, p. 4). More spe-cifically, PPPs promote “relational contracting between the public and the private sector for the organization and deliv-ery of services that involve[s] risk sharing and mutual learn-ing between the parties involved”

As schools have looked to corporations for support, corporations have found business motivation and felt social pressure to become involved in public governance and policy.

In this case, the pedagogy of business culture often bears an eerie, if not chilling, alignment with diverse modes of policing.

long record of prioritizing the teaching of methods over theory, substituting training for critical education, advocating for charter schools, and supporting the punishing bromide of reducing teacher and student evaluations to the draconian demands of high-stakes testing and empirically based performance measures.

In the end, Steiner’s soaring imagination and literary tastes simply become a convenient excuse for refusing to engage his politics and the obsequious role he now plays as a courier for corporate power and neoliberal ideology. The result, in part, has been a mainstream media-driven narrative that depoliticizes the most important issues at hand in the Bloomberg appointment and the role that is played at the highest levels of state power by an intellectual elite who provide support for such malfeasance.

The barbarians in this narrative are not the business elites but the hordes of alleged philistines who make up the teachers’ unions and confront every day the growing challenges of engaging students in the classroom.

It is also part and parcel of free-market ideology that assumes that all social, economic, educational, and political problems can be solved through the template of a business culture increasingly characterized by top-down modes of governance,

what constitutes educational leadership.

Put simply, she will eliminate tenure for teachers, disregard seniority and the job protections it offers, continue high-stakes testing modes of pedagogy, tie teacher evaluations to stripped-down empirical evaluations, close schools that are under served, and promote the opening of charter schools. This is a notion of educational reform that erases everything that matters for teachers, students, and a society dedicated to establishing education as a crucial public sphere for a democratic society.

How does running a successful business qualify someone to run the largest school system in America? And if she is qualified by virtue of that experience, why, as a precondition for assuming the job, is she being assigned a deputy chancellor who, as an experienced educator, is serving as her private tutor – a condition which makes it clear how unqualified she is for the position in the first place.

The only person with the power to insist that Ms. Black be provided with a surrogate tutor was David Steiner, the then recently appointed state education commissioner

in accepting the position, she reproduced the distorted assumption that ‘all the school system needs is a smart and talented manager’.[4]

imperial rule of Mayor Bloomberg who, true to his corporate values, once again exhibits his disdain for any notion of governance that solicits public dialogue, democratic values, and community involvement.

Largely rationalized in economic terms, the new neoliberal educational reformers render education as a major force in creating a politically compliant and technologically savvy labor force, while disregarding any pedagogical conditions that enable students to exercise independent thought and ethical stewardship as part of a larger project designed to meet the needs of a democratic polity.

the leadership driving the new reform movement in education consists of hedge fund managers, multi-millionaires, Ivy League apparatchiks, and corporate executives.

the article attempts to make clear that the culture of business largely functions both to disempower students and teachers and to undercut the ability of schools to connect learning to social change, the power of the imagination, civic courage, and intellectual growth.

According to the study’s findings, MAT-2, which assesses major - minor mode discrimination, feeling for tonal center, and music reading, was more strongly related to both reading achievement and math achievement than was MAT-1, which assesses pitch, interval, and meter discrimination.

For this study, we employed multilevel mixed modeling to develop two models, one explaining the relationship of music achievement to reading achievement,

The main research question for the study is as follows: After controlling for selected background variables situated within or across one or more hierarchical levels (indi-vidual students, classrooms, schools, and school districts), is music achievement in fourth- to eighth-grade students related to their reading and math achievement?

association between music achievement and achievement in other academic domains, usually operationalized for research purposes as course grades or scores on normed examinations.

The experimental studies, which are designed to test the hypothesis that music study enhances (or causes) reading improvement,

erent pictures. The meta- analysis of the correlational studies shows that students studying music do in fact have significantly higher scores on standardized reading tests (or on the verbal portion of the Scholastic Asse

There are several possible reasons to hypothesize that instruction in music may help children acquire read

two somewhat opposing trends: on the one hand,an approach that favorsthe contextual use of musicas a funand motivational context to teach reading and other skills(Standley and Hughes, 1997; Standley, 2008; Darrow, 2009); andon the other hand, anauditory neuro-development framework

Foreign language pronunciation skills and brain responseto duration deviants (in music and speech) were better in 10-to 12-year-olds with musical training

This literacy acquisitionrelies heavily on the process of phonological awarenes

understanding the effects of music training is important notonly in assessing the educational benefits of music programs, but ingaining a clearer understanding of the mechanisms that underliereading, since the relations between reading ability and relatedskills may themselves be altered by musical experience

the development of reading skills depends heavilyon auditory perception and the ability to parse out meaningfulspeech elements from an auditory stream. Reading also relies ongeneral cognitive functions such as working memory, and upon theability to map visual symbols to sounds, which has previouslyshown improvement with computerized music-based trainingprograms [46

analyses showed that the children whoreceived music training maintained their age-normed performanceon the composite reading measure after one year

Music and language skills rely upon auditory processing

‘‘Matthew effect’’ [8], with the impact of socioeconomic status onliteracy development resulting in an increasing gap in achievementover time between children from low- and high-socioeconomicbackgrounds

Low socioeconomic status can affect the trajectory of readingdevelopment [4,5] through a combination of impoverished homelanguage environment [6] and reduced access to print materials[7].

a 2011 NationalEndowment for the Arts survey states that the percentage of 18year-olds who report receiving music instruction of any kindduring childhood (either in school or privately) fell from 53% to36% between 1982 and 2008 [3]. In other words,mostchildren inthe United States receivenomusic education. This decline is partof an overall reduction in arts education, particularly in Hispanicand African-American communities

Efforts by social scientists to arrive at a more precise definition of “community” have focused on the face-to-face communicatio

participatory element.

The UMC site is particularly loaded with links to church activities and to ways of tailoring the broad message to your individual opinions, activities, and needs.

Hinduismappears to offer more such possibilities than does Catholicism or Islam

but with no performative, or sacramental, value

“religion online,” where information is conveyed, and “online religion,” where users create religious communities.

All these sites promote horizontal communication,

interaction is human–machine.

global, electronic spatial reach

In 2000, it allowed users to identify their religion and then answer a series of diagnostic questions about beliefs, observance, and behavior, which placed them at a specific point on the relevant doctrinal spectrum

Teachers can engage students in creating and sharing original digital content without Discovery Education.

Discovery Education committed to providing professional development relating to students as creators of digital content while also enhancing opportunities for students to post original content

Computational thinking requires understanding the capabilities of computers, formulating problems to be addressed by a computer, and designing algorithms that a computer can execute.

Our collaborative inquiryrevealed that‘Property of No One’involved young people working within the constraints of the sys-tems they occupy and with the tools they have at their disposal to do socially just work.

Not only did the school provide a set of tools andresources for media production in the form of the lab space and a dedicated media teacher, butthe very structure of the school providedflexibility in how students performed their requirements.

Sara described its broader narrative as a‘sister story

how critical media literacy potentials are realized in practice, as they study how adults, youth mediaorganizations, funders, and popular culture shape the ways youth engage with media and the storiesthey tell

We theorized restorying as a way young peopleuse digital tools to write themselves into existence,first narrating and analyzing their lived experi-ences and then synthesizing and recontextualizing those stories to represent a diversity of perspec-tives and reshape dominant narratives.

how young people use new media tools in school to engagethe narrative imagination and build the worlds they want to live in,simultaneously representing the political histories and realities of theireveryday worlds

sustained, informed, evaluative elements embedded in construction.

Construction is the building or assembling of an infrastructure. Construction is equal parts inspiration and perspiration. Construction calls on creativity as well as persistence, flexibility, and revision.

During the ORC process students learn during an inquiry process and then send this message out to others using a text or tool of their choosing.

Comprehension matters, but so does pleasure.

readers perceive paper as being better suited for “effortful learning,” whereas the screen is perceived as being suited for “fast and shallow reading of short texts such as news, e-mails, and forum notes.” They tested the hypothesis that our reading habits follow from this perception, and found it to be correct: Students asked to read a text on-screen thought they could do it faster than students asked to read the same text in print, and did a worse job of pacing themselves in a timed study period. Not surprisingly, the on-screen readers then scored worse on a reading comprehension test.

There’s no question that digital technology presents challenges to the reading brain, but, seen from a historical perspective, these look like differences of degree, rather than of kind.

Explore and engage critically, thoughtfully, and across a wide variety of inclusive texts and tools/modalities

Until and unless online research skills are more visible in both standards and assess-ments, economically challenged schools may be less likely to incorporate them into their curriculum.

Online research and comprehension is important to learning across all disciplinary areas, in addi-tion to reading.

We also wanted to evaluate whether income inequality was associated with online reading achievement. It was.

Particularly troubling is that income inequality in the United States is also increasing (Congressional Budget Office, 2007 ), suggesting that the offline reading achievement gap may get even larger over time. R e a d i n g i s a n i m p o r t a n t g a t e w a y t o l e a r n i n g a n d success in school (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985 )

Without educational alternatives that expand and diversify meaningful life options and pathways available to young people, we risk reinforcing an educational system that only serves the interests of elites, breeding a culture of competition for scarce opportunities.

Today’s educational institutions are struggling to fulfill their mission of providing pathways to opportunity for all youth

he reality for too many youth, however, is that they see a shrinking set of options and little guidance towards new kinds of learning opportunity, community contribution, and diverse careers.

What would it mean to consider an educational agenda that includes more flexible, informal, diverse, and interest-driven learning environments? Can we do this in a way that elevates all youth rather than serving the privileged minority?

technology tools allow educators to redefine a traditional task in a way that would not be possible without the tech, creating a novel experience.

Instead of replacement or enhancement, this is an actual change to the design of the lesson and its learning outcome. The key question here—does the technology significantly alter the task?

The technology is again directly substituted for a traditional one, but with significant enhancements to the student experience.

At this stage, technology is directly substituted for a more traditional one. It is a simple, bare-bones, direct replacement

The SAMR model was created to share a common language across disciplines as teachers strive to help students visualize complex concepts.

Understanding the impact of technology on the practices and knowledge of a given discipline is critical to developing appropriate technological tools for educational purposes.

the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning. They encompass, among other things, overall educational purposes, values, and aims. This generic form of knowledge applies to understanding how students learn, general classroom management skills, lesson planning, and student assessment.

Knowledge and the nature of inquiry differ greatly between fields, and teachers should understand the deeper knowledge fundamentals of the disciplines in which they teach.

At the heart of good teaching with technology are three core components: content, pedagogy, and technology, plus the relationships among and between them.

newer digital technologies, which are protean, unstable, and opaque, present new challenges to teachers who are struggling to use more technology in their teaching.

While connected learning is not new, and does not require technology, new digital and networked technologies expand opportunities to make connected learning accessible to all young people.

we use media to inform ourselves, to help shape our opinions, to interact with our communities and to make our voices heard. Models for digital citizenship are generally framed around elements such as rights and responsibilities, participation or civic engagement, norms of behaviour or etiquette, and a sense of belonging and membership.

a curriculum framework

key concepts for digital literacy are essential both in providing a common language for theorists and educators and in being a guiding principle for teachers in a rapidly changing technological landscape.

As Douglas Belshaw puts it, “Digital literacies are transient: they change over time, may involve using different tools or developing different habits of mind, and almost always depend upon the context in which an individual finds herself.”[

basic access, awareness and training to inform citizens and build consumer and user confidence to highly sophisticated and more complex creative and critical literacies and outcomes.

As increasing numbers of businesses, services and even democratic processes migrate online, citizens who lack digital literacy skills risk being disadvantaged when it comes to accessing healthcare, government services and opportunities for employment, education and civic participation

generation of youth who are not fully digitally literate, yet are deeply immersed in cyberspace. Therefore, “it is not… enough to assume that young people automatically have all of the skills, knowledge and understanding that they need to apply to their use of technology.

Backward Design Template with Descriptions (click link for template with descriptions).

encourages intentionality during the design process.

backward design approach has instructors consider the learning goals of the course first. These learning goals embody the knowledge and skills instructors want their students to have learned when they leave the course. Once the learning goals have been established, the second stage involves consideration of assessment.

“21C Skills” refers to a broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits that are important to succeed in today’s world, particularly for college and career readiness and in the workplace. Examples of these skills include collaboration, communication, creativity, and problem-solving.

Knowing how to read, write, and participate in the digital world has become the 4th basic foundational skill next to the three Rs—reading, writing, and arithmetic—in a rapidly evolving, networked world.

Global economic competition within economies based increasingly on the effective use of information and communication.2. The rapid appearance of the Internet in both our professional and personal lives.3. Public policy initiatives by nations that integrate literacy and the Internet into instruction.

According to one of the most systematic evaluations of worldwide Internet use, over 2.4 billion individuals now use the Internet—more than one third of the world’s population (Internet World Stats, 2011). Moreover, at the current rate of growth, Internet use will be ubiquitous in the world within the next decade.

This approach suggests that the best solutions result from collaborative groups who bring diverse, multiple per-spectives to problems (Page, 2007). New Literacies theory takes an “open-source” approach, inviting everyone who studies the Internet’s impact to contribute to theory development and to benefit from others’ contributions.

The Mozilla Foundation and community of volunteers have worked to address this paradox by creating a Web Literacy Map.

Students have to query a search engine using keywords and navigate those results, including assessing the reliability of particular authors and websites.