releases its negative RNA into the cytoplasm, RSV replicase begins base pairing to form the positive RNA template strand

after it enters the body through a mucous membrane, like the eye or nos

SV is often considered a nosocomial infection due to its prevalence in hospital settings, ranging from 6-56% from neonatal/pediatric to adult settings

human contact from the spread of infected respiratory secretions like mucous

The first step is to transcribe a positive sense RNA strand from the original negative sense RNA strand

Ebola enters the human host via mucosal areas or skin abrasions.

The primary reservoir of Ebola is thought to be fruit bats. It is not fully understood how Ebola jumped species.

Lastly, health-care providers who treat Ebola-infected patients are at high risk of contamination, as infections have occurred in the past when precautions were not strictly enforced

bola originally jumped to the human species from close contact with fruit bats, their excretions, or their blood (5). After that, transmission is through human-human contact, more specifically through direct contact with bodily fluids and/or anything carrying these fluids

encode accessory proteins (p12, p13/p30), the Rex post-transcriptional regulator (ORF III) and the Tax protein (ORF IV).

In addition to the essential viral genes gag, prt, pol, and env, HTLV-1 encodes regulatory and accessory genes for the pX region open reading frames (ORFs), which are located between the env gene and the 3’ portion of the viral genome.

HTLV-1 contains a linear, dimeric, ssRNA(+) genome of 8,507nt , with a 5’-cap and a 3’poly-A tail

Mobility No

National outbreak of Yersinia enterocolitica infections in military and civilian populations associated with consumption of mixed salad, Norway, 2014.

The overall infection rate of HTLV-1 in children by seropositive mothers is estimated to be 10% to 30%

Primary advantages over an ampicillin-gentamicincombination are its narrower spectrum of antimicrobial activity and lower cost. However, high doses of penicillin G must be used for the treatment of Group B streptococcal disease for two reasons. First, the MIC of penicillin G for Group B Streptococcus is relatively high, 4-10 fold greater (range 0.01-0.4 µg/ml) than that for group A streptococcal strains

Although some necrotizing infections may still be susceptible to penicillin, clindamycin is the treatment of choice for necrotizing infections

If staphylococci or gram-negative rods are involved, vancomycin and other antibiotics to treat gram-negative organisms other than aminoglycosides may be required

For example, use may depend on whether a nasocranial infection is present, or it may need to be avoided in patients who are likely to be carriers of MRSA (eg, those with diabetes, those who use illicit drugs, those undergoing hemodialysis).

A more specifically targeted antibiotic regimen may be begun after the results of initial gram-stained smear, culture, and sensitivities are available.

Empiric antibiotics should be started immediately. Initial antimicrobial therapy should be broad-based, to cover aerobic gram-positive and gram-negative organisms and anaerobes. A foul smell in the lesion strongly suggests the presence of anaerobic organisms. The maximum doses of the antibiotics should be used,

The activities of cefotaxime, moxalactam, MK 0787 (N-formimidoyl thienamycin), ampicillin, oxacillin, vancomycin, and clindamycin were compared against gram-positive cocci.

Data from retrospective studies[138,139] and one observational prospective study[140] of patients with severe pneumococcal bacteremia have suggested that combination therapy may be associated with reduced mortality, as compared with β-lactam monotherapy, irrespective of the level of resistance to penicillins.

Other alternative drugs include the carbapenems, newer quinolones, clindamycin, telithromycin, linezolid, and vancomycin

In critically ill patients, cefotaxime or ceftriaxone is most often the primary alternative if there is no indication of a type 1 allergy to penicillin

The majority of strains with reduced susceptibility to penicillin are more susceptible to certain third-generation cephalosporins, such as cefotaxime or ceftriaxone, but there is always some cross-resistance within the β-lactam group, and resistance to these drugs is increasing

Penicillin remains the drug of choice for fully sensitive strains with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) < 0.1 µg/L. Also strains with moderately decreased susceptibility (MIC 0.1-1.0 µg/L) can be effectively treated with penicillin G, provided that the dose and dosing intervals are adequate

These casereports suggest the following risk factors for the development ofpneumococcal NF – a history of diabetes, systemic lupuserythematosus, immunosuppression, alcohol use, coronaryartery disease and administration of intramuscular nonsteroidalanti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

1. Vancomycin, Clindamycin, and Piperacillin/ tazobactam 2. Linezolid and Piperacillin/tazobactam

The recommended course of treatment is the use of vancomycin, linezolid, or daptomycin to treat MRSA and gram-positive bacteria, an agent to treat anaerobic bacteria (e.g., clindamycin), and an agent to treat gram-negative bacteria. Alternatively, anaerobic and gram-negative bacteria can be treated with one drug that covers both

Lincosamide for treatment of serious skin and soft-tissue staphylococcal infections

Resistance is obtained as part of a cassette of genetic information, or a transposon, that encodes resistance to multiple antibiotics.

Transposon transfer is thought to be the most likely mechanism in S pneumoniae , although point mutations also occur.

Even cefotaxime and ceftriaxone resistance has been documented

The capsule of S pneumoniae renders it resistant to phagocytosis

neumolysin is produced as a 52 kDa soluble protein that oligomerizes in the membrane of target cells to form a large ring-shaped transmembrane pore. The pore is 260 Å in diameter and is composed of approximately 40 monomer subunits. During its conversion from a soluble monomer to a membrane-inserted oligomer, pneumolysin undergoes a series of spectacular structural changes42. The oligomers are thought to be responsible for the cytolytic activity of the toxin and the plethora of cell-modulatory activities that are evident at sub-lytic con-centrations. These activities include: inhibition of ciliary beating on respiratory epithelium and brain ependyma; inhibition of the phagocyte respiratory burst; and induc-tion of cytokine synthesis and CD4+ T-cell activation and chemotaxis43,44. Site-directed mutagenesis has shown that pneumolysin activates the classical complement pathway independently of its cell-modulatory activity45

lmost all pneumococcal CPSs are negatively charged, which could increase their repulsion of the sialic acid-rich mucopolysaccharides that are found in mucus12

The pneumococcus resides on the mucosal surface of the upper respiratory tract

one of the common forms of pneumococcal disease, however, promote pneumococcal transmission, which implies that the virulence characteristics of the pneumococcus are prob-ably adaptations that increase its persistence within a host during colonization

Although colonization at this site seems to be asymptomatic, if the organism gains access to the normally sterile parts of the airway a rapid inflamma-tory response ensues that results in disease.

5 days to 5 months after initial exposure to Brucella species

initial symptoms(https://www.cdc.gov/brucellosis/symptoms/index.html) are non-specific

wild hogs (feral swine) elk bison caribou moose

Laboratory tests and a short course of antibiotics

y unknowingly consume unpasteurized dairy products.

Unpasteurized cheeses (sometimes called "village cheeses

slaughterhouse workers meat-packing employees veterinarians laboratory workers

lthough brucellosis can be found worldwide, it is more common in countries that do not have effective public health and domestic animal health programs.

Some signs and symptoms may persist for longer periods of time

index cases

incorrect impression about how the disease emerges in the first place and, on the other hand, insinuate that somebody should be blamed for this outbreak,

understand index cases so that we know how diseases are coming into a community and how to stop their spread.

primary cases

"It is not uncommon for infectious agents to percolate in the environment for years or even decades without detection,"

super-spreaders

bacterium Salmonella typhi.

who for one reason or another may be infected with a pathogen and not have that many symptoms but can shed that pathogen in a way that makes it infectious to other people

No one really knows whether Mallon was the true patient zero in the typhoid case or simply a super-spreader or super-shedder.

I can't even think of a time when we've actually known an index case,"

"You wouldn't call him 'patient zero,' but if you consider his impact in terms of the outbreak, he was critical in the spread of the disease,"

In less than four months, about 4,000 cases and 550 deaths from SARS could be traced to Liu's stay in Hong Kong.

The hospital where he worked treated SARS, and Liu might have come into contact with the virus through a patient.

"There are plenty of potential patient zeroes out there that get infected with stuff,"

The key to an outbreak, Friedrich said, is for those viruses to be transmitted from a single person to more people.

In 2004, a 6-year-old boy named Captain Boonmanuch became the first confirmed casualty of bird flu in Thailand as the virus spread across Asia,

"The viruses that really circulate in humans turn out mostly to be reassortants between viruses, usually from birds and other human viruses."

A reassortant

Avian influenza viruses don't replicate well in humans, human influenza viruses don't replicate well in birds, but if a bird virus and a human virus gets into a pig, you can have reassortment and get totally new strains out,

H1N1 influenza emerged in humans to cause a pandemic in 1918, Friedrich said, and then a similar pandemic hit the world in 2009.

It is believed that, leading up to the 2009 pandemic, pigs became infected with a few different viruse

The resulting outbreak serves as an example of how new flu viruses might enter the human population, Friedrich said.

Ebola can be introduced into the human population through close contact with the blood, secretions, organs and other bodily fluids of infected animals

Officials said he might have contracted the disease from a bat.

he virus continued to spread through contact with the body and with human bodily fluids, possibly even after the human died

Last year, there was a MERS outbreak in South Korea, and a 68-year-old man with an extensive travel history was reported to be the so-called patient zero.

He was not ill with symptoms during his travels, according to the WHO, but once he fell ill, he went to the Samsung Medical Center in Seou

They happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time."

it's not that tight. It's not that clean.

it's not that tight. It's not that clean.

"As humans, we sort of want to make tight stories about things, and sometimes that involves blaming or saying, 'Oh, this person started the epidemic,'