Woolf is commonly read as integral to artistic traditions initiated and shaped by homosexual men such as aestheticism and Bloomsbury.

To integrate Woolf as the radical sexual innovator she is, Woolf scholars can begin by reading Woolf's sexual themes within contemporaneous lesbian and male homosexual contexts, and to ask what constitutes sexual freedom on her terms, not our own

Woolf's prose is saturated with lesbian eroticism. Her attentionis on the intensity and qualityof sexual emotion rather than specific acts. Woolf’s indirect, metaphoric representation of lesbian themes is consistent with her mistrust of realist representation throughout her fiction.

The ability to separate structure from presentation is particularly useful in this regard.

Montfort’s point is historical, but screen essentialism also obscures the diversity of contemporary interfaces used by people with disabilities and, increasingly, by all people.

“Crowdsourcing” is a term coined by Jeff Howe in 2006 to describe online projects that make use of free or extremely inexpensive labor provided by “enthusiasts” around the world who are interested in donating their time to a project that interests them.

The Web Accessibility Initiative of the World Wide Web Consortium

In addition to the United States, the list of nations with laws or policies requiring web accessibility includes Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, India, Italy, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Portugal, and Spain

Whether in a physical or a digital environment, designers are always making choices about accessibility.

We classify some software and hardware tools as “assistive technology”—sometimes the term “adaptive technology” is used instead—because they have been designed specifically to assist those people with “special needs.”

She demonstrated this software for me, and I was surprised by how quickly the words were spoken by the synthesized voice that came from her laptop’s speakers. In fact, I could not understand anything at all that she was doing.

It is imperative that digital humanities work take into account the important insights of disability studies in the humanities, an interdisciplinary field that considers disability “not so much a property of bodies as a product of cultural rules about what bodies should be or do,” in the words of Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, a prominent figure in the field (6).

To do so, we needed to think about the needs of people who are blind, have low vision, or have difficulty navigating because of the clutter that often accumulates on web pages.

I suggest that technical communi-cation instructors rethink the teaching of plagiarism, as itoccurs both in the classroom and in textbooks, by 1) incor-porating discussion of legal definitions of authorship and 2)using analyses of workplace scenarios as a pedagogical tool

hese same technologies are presentedin these examples as inherently dangerous, as causing a“rise” in cases of plagiarism or “making plagiarism tempt-ing.”

he notionthat all writing is inherently collaborative, intertextual, andsocial even from the point of invention (

One basic rule underlies the mechanical steps describedin the rest of this chapter: With the exception of “com-mon knowledge,” you should cite sources for ALL bor-rowed information used in your final document. Thisincludes quotations, paraphrases, and summari

patchwriting”

This four-factor fair use analysis, however, is oftenonly narrowly interpreted in academic settings. One ex-ample is the adoption of the “Agreement on guidelinesfor classroom copying in not-for-profit educational insti-tutions with respect to books and periodicals” (1976),originated by the Ad Hoc Committee of EducationalInstitutions and Organizations on Copyright Law Revi-sion, the Authors League of America, and the Associationof American Publishers. The agreement suggests limita-tions such as allowing only 10% of a prose work to bereproduced.

er or his class,

Scenarios

the fair use clause

Unfortunately, cases of plagiarism are on the rise. Oneof the downsides of online texts, such as websites, is theease of plagiarism. Some students have learned tech-niques of “patchwriting,” in which they cut and pastetext from the Internet and then revise it into a docu-ment. This kind of writing is highly vulnerable tocharges of plagiarism, so it should be avoided. (1

there are plenty of fonts available that are free to download or commonly available on many operating systems that will do very nicely for everyday design projects. In the serif category, try Georgia,

Display or decorative typefaces (briefly mentioned at the beginning of the article), on the other hand, are never suitable for reading at length.

One of the most common mistakes that beginners make is not realizing what various font categories are most suitable for — for instance, body typefaces versus display typefaces.

Consider context and audience.Where and how your design will be viewed should also figure into your font choices.

every typeface has its own mood or personality.

bad typographic choices always distract from your design’s message and intentions.

Is your font saying “beach vacation” when it should be saying “job interview”?

Think about what your clothes might say about you: based on what you wear, people might rightly or wrongly make assumptions about your style, your personality, your socio-economic background, your age (or the age you wish you were), or the kind of impression you want to make.

Jessica Hische

Dan Mayer

Erik Spiekermann

I removed one participant from the cluster analysis who sorted allthe cards, but in such a way as to skew the results. With a sharp wit, this participantcreated only two categories: “Byproducts of nuclear decay,” which containedonly one card,radiation; and “What an academic thinks of when he or shemisinterprets design as the synthesis of a set of design principles,” which con-tained all of the remaining cards. I did, however, include this participant’ssurvey responses, as they reflected an attitude toward design that favored artisticsensibility over using more formal methods such as design principles or designresearch. I address this attitude more fully in the conclusion to this article

However, I was confident that card sorting techniques would provide agood opportunity for exploring perceived relationships between common designprinciples. This methodology also allowed me to stay open to the possibilitythat design principles are so idiosyncratic that no meaningful structure or rela-tionships might emerg

I conducted an online card sorting exercise. Cardsorting is a flexible technique for discovering how people group items. Designersand usability experts often use this technique to help determine informationarchitecture, such as for website navigation orproduct list arrangeme

Having determined which design principles are mentioned most commonlyin literature on design, the next question is, how do these design principlesrelate to one another

This quantitative review produced a raw list of 198 design principles. Thisnumber might seem discouragingly high except for two outlying works: Leborg[54], which lists 41 principles, 33 of which are unique, and Lidwell et al. [58],which lists 100 principles, 87 of which are unique. Lidwell et al.’s broader focuson “universal principles of design” rather than visual design principles meansthat many of their principles fall outside of the scope of my study. (Some evenstretch the concept of design principle—for example, “uncertainty principle”and “normal distribution.”) If we were to exclude Leborg’s and Lidwell et al.’sunique principles, the list of design principles contracts from 198 to 77—stillhigh, but more reasonable. However, because I included unique principles fromother texts, I retained all of Leborg’s and Lidwell et al.’s principles in the raw list.As might be expected, some of these principles are considerably more commonthan most. Overall, of the 198 principles in the raw list, 160 were mentioned inonly one work. The 198 design principles were listed cumulatively 420 timesin the 46 texts; 61.9% of these listings referred to principles used in at leasttwo works. Despite the large number of unique principles, they were used onlyin 38.1% of texts.While the unique principles may have some heuristic value, they are clearlynot as widespread in the lore of design as other principles, so I excluded themfrom the card sorting exercise. Doing so produced a final list of 38 visual designprinciples referred to in at least two of the 46 works (see Figure 1). Figure 1visualizes the frequencies of the most common principles in a Pareto chart,excluding the long tail of individual mention

The primary advantage of this online approach was quick and efficient accessto participants. However, there were two disadvantages. First, in a face-to-facecard sorting exercise, the researcher often observes the participant as he or shesorts the cards and uses the talk-aloud protocol to gather further informationabout participants’ thinking during the exercise. Because I would not attend thecard sorting, this kind of observation was not possible. Second, I would havelittle control over who agreed to participate. The possibility for spam is alwayspresent with online media

Traditionally, in a card sorting exercise the researcher writes items on standard3” × 5” index cards and asks participants to sort the cards into categories. Theresearcher then records the groupings and category labels and compares themover multiple participants. To expand the reach of my study, I used an onlinecard sorting tool, Optimal Sort (http://www.optimalworkshop.com). Instead ofindex cards, this online tool displays digital shapes that participants can dragand drop on screen to create groups, which they can then label (see Figure 2).This tool also allowed participants to provide feedback through before and aftersurvey questions

Card sorting is typically conducted in one of two ways: closed sort or opensort. In a closed sort, participants sort the cards into predefined categories.In an open sort, participants sort the cards into categories they create themselves.Due to the exploratory nature of my study, I used an open sort so designerscould group the design principles as they saw fit. I also did not require partici-pants to sort all of the cards, but restricted my analysis to those who sorted atleast 75% of the cards

So at best, design principles are a kind of lore. Lore is a kind of contingentknowledge based in practice, and as North has argued for composition studies, ithas a value that is often overlooked. However, lore being what it is—anecdotal,implicit, and often idiosyncratic—I think there is good justification to bringresearch to bear on it. Accordingly, in this article I apply empirical techniques tounderstand the lore of design principles more fully

None of these questions have straightforward answers. Although many authorsrefer to design principles, hardly any define what they mean by the term. A few,such as Williams and Stimatz [8] or Blair-Early and Zender [9] generally refer todesign principles as “rules of thumb”; as such, principles are heuristic methodsthat help us make design decisions quickly. But these rules of thumb can be vari-able and ambiguous, because they are based on individual designers’experienceand on the advice they absorb from their training and reading. Depending on thesituation, designers may employ different design principles at different levelsof consistency. Designers, in fact, often talk about the need to “break the rules”on occasion to bring attention or interest to a design. Some designers even denyusing design principles at all, arguing that they rely on instinct, artistic sensi-bilities, or a “good eye.” This ambiguity leads Johnson to comment that th

a focal point

One of the key approaches to achieving layout nirvana is a clear sense of structure and hierarchy.

One of the most effective ways to provide a sense of balance is to choose a single focal point for your layout. A good example of this in practice is the use of a large image as the biggest single element on a page.

A good page composition should be both pleasing to the eye, but also communicate those key messages clearly to the intended audience.

Many designers approach this process organically, feeling their way to a pleasing end result.

One of the easiest ways to ensure your page has a degree of balance is to use a grid system

repetition can provide a strong sense of connected design and balance to a composition.

On the web, simply providing plenty of breathing room around elements can help make the layout feel composed and balanced.

a good display headline can offer as much visual interest as an image,

Technical writing has a close relationship to technology. Technical writing per se, must have some logical relationship to technology. We have tended to employ a very narrow view of technology, and to conflate the term with com­puter technology. But as Wajcman points out, technology is more than just the latest computer hardware or software on the market. Technology refers equally to knowledge, actions, and tools: it is (for example) a network of con­structed waterways, the knowledge of when and how to irrigate fields, and the entire set of human actions that comprise this method for farming. Inventions, as Stanley argues, therefore include innovations such as the pre­paid health care plan (Jeanne Mance), social services in hospitals (Dr. Marie Zakrzewska), and flextime (Christel Kammerer)

Technical writing exists within government and industry, as well as in theintersection between private and public spheres.

. The cultural link between science, technology, and masculinity com­bined with a bias that fails to find significance in productive activities that occur within the household and lack associated cash value has, I believe, resulted in an interpretation of "technical writing" that works to exclude the significant contributions of women.

wW fo m e n are largely absent from our recorded disciplinary past, whether as technical writers, as scientists, or as inventors or users of technol­ogy

there is a need to establish significance, which usually involves prerequisite loca­tion within the public sphere (allocated to men) rather than the private sphere (the realm of women).

Even when well-known women patent such "real" inventions of significance, they may not receive credit: screen actress Hedy Lamarr invented a secret communications system during World War II (and patented it, with com­poser George Antheil) yet "has never received either recompense . . . or due recognition," even though one of its key features — frequency hopping—"is the main anti-jamming technology used in today's billion-dollar defense systems" (Stanley, Mothers 383).

Stanley contends that women's technological achievements have been rou­tinely under-reported, at least in part, because "our sex-role stereotypes seek to confine that [feminine] creativity to such 'acceptable' areas as art, music, dance, writing, and cooking

Catherine Greene and the cotton gin

his-story

my own article on doc­ument design innovations in home sewing patterns ("Patterns for Success").

Gordon (2005) explained that color blindness ‘‘maintainsthat race does not exist as a meaningful category and posits that the benefitsaccrued to White people are earned by (gifted) individuals rather than sys-temically conferred’’

inequities in health, wealth, and education.

nfortunately, there was still little research in this area in 2004

Beyond Compliance: Participatory Translation ofSafety Communication for Latino Construction Workers,’

Writing New Mexico White: A Critical Analysis of Early Representationsof New Mexico in Technical Writing

‘‘Instructions, Visuals, and the English-Speaking Bias of Technical Commu-nication’’ address the representation of Latinos in U.S. technical communica-tion.

We acknowledge, though, that many, inside and outside of our field,believe that race is not a relevant concept in our society or field. Some arguethat we live in a nonracist society, and thus the need to acknowledge colorno longer exists

50.5 million people, making Hispanics the largest minority group in theUnited States.

Through a careful, criticaldeconstruction of the 2010 census form and census data reports, Pimenteland Balzhiser propose a ‘‘double occupancy of Hispanics’’ whereby theHispanic-origin and race questions simultaneously encourage the U.S. soci-ety to keep a tab on Hispanic growth and inflate the white count

monographs

McDonalds has hard seats - to keep you moving.

For instance, children who have acquired a first language through immersion in the practices of their communities do not thereby, in virtue of that fact, become good linguists.

Design

Through critical framing, learners can gain the necessary personal and theoretical distance from what they have learned, constructively critique it, account for its cultural location, creatively extend and apply it, and eventually innovate on their own, within old communities and in new ones.

The word "community" is often used to describe the differences that are now so critical - the Italian-American community, the gay community, the business community, and so on - as if each of these communities had neat boundaries.

The decline of the old, monocultural, nationalistic sense of "civic" has a space vacated that must be filled again. We propose that this space be claimed by a civic pluralism. Instead of states that require one cultural and linguistic standard, we need states that arbitrate differences

we are designers of social futures - workplace futures, public futures, and community futures.

new communications media are reshaping the way we use language

When technologies of meaning are changing so rapidly, there cannot be one set of standards or skills that constitute the ends of literacy learning, however taught.

XML

intranet

Enterprise ContentManagement

the difficulty involved in understanding the relationshipsbetween different pieces of information

Busi-ness leaders, who are often the decision makers in the adoption and implementa-tion of ECM systems, “tend to examine the value of ECM solutions and theirdisparate applications from a production process model, the extent to which thetechnologies promise to increase process efficiencies and reduce maintenance andsystem costs.”

What gets lost amid this ECM vender rhetoric

the possibility of content management system design that could affordmeans for the writer to use her own text to “keep track of certain pieces of metadataduring composition.”

Whittemore believes the mnemonic systems employed by ancient rhetors offerpractical implications for the design of the memory tools in content managementsystems.

The following is a partial list of the different jobs within technical communication: