I came to see whiteness in this venue asa gendered geography, where women produce children and cultivate moral values in the home, andmen use strength and valor to defend that home from others seen as threats, an insight reflectedin other feminist studies of this movement.

recalcitrant politics (

I arguethat homophobia and anti-feminism are now central recruitment pathways into the online whitenationalist movement. While these issues have been central to white nationalism for decades,the gendered politics have changed as the movement has expanded from early self-containedcybercommunities and alternative news venues into a wide variety of social media spaces. Ineffect, white nationalists use online venues to racialize homophobia and anti-feminism, affirminga normative white masculinity.

Recognition of difference andintersectionality breaks the pattern of women as all being the sameand having a common “essence” that defines them. Such recognitionalso allows for the creation of more functional alliances amonggroups after differences and common interests have been struggledwith and sorted out.

Men receive no such benefits. Why, on the basisof equality, should women?

luralism maintains that all kinds of differencecan co-exist in some kind of peace, if not full-blown harmony, orthat they can bring tensions to the fore in fruitful ways.

Critical race theorylooks at the ways in which laws actually discriminate againsteveryone who is a minority.

Although slavery has unfortunately existedamong humans for millennia, we see that the beginnings of modernempire by Europeans produced a powerful ideology of race.

that is, biological cycles and reproduction governwomen’s lives, to some extent, in a way that they do not for men.

s. Paying attention to shades of difference isa luxury women in emerging countries needing solidarity with mencan’t afford.

Differencecreates the rich and the poor, the gay and the straight, the raced andthe unraced. The issue of difference is one that provokes question-ing and that has led to some of the most important innovations notonly in thinking about women but in thinking about society, theeconomy, and politics more generally

In the early days of second wave feminism the idea wasthat anywhere one found a woman, one found a sister. Womenshared the same life stories of oppression; they all operated on themargins; they symbolized madness in opposition to men’s rationality;they were, as Simone de Beauvoir put it, a collective and individual“Other.”

Environmentaljustice for the Maldives would require that developedcountries acknowledge their role in causing global warming and assume their respon-sibilities regarding climate debt and in overcoming the crisis in the present, not sim-ply accepting the narratives of future anthropogenic catastrophe."

Beforewe accept the inevitability of climate-refugee narratives, we must ask: How might weinvent creative modes of resilience and mitigation in the face of approaching climatechaos, and think aesthetics in relation to the politics of climate justice-as summedup in the slogan "System change, not climate changel'l-e-rather than surrendering tofuturist speculation that potentially eclipses real options in the here and now?

By placing Betty into a perilous setting in the jungle juxtaposed toArmstrong’s savage image, the animators created a very compelling and‘successful story.

As the introduction to the song endsand its opening verse begins, the head dissolves into Armstrong’s ownlive-action head in profile, singing the title song (see figure 18). This trans-formation focuses on another facet of the primitivist caricature, imply-ing that Armstrong is still a denizen of the jungle himself.

Arm-strong and his band performing before moving on to the animated story,thereby both giving the audience the opportunity to see the actual mu-sicians and providing Armstrong with valuable publicity

Perhaps the most chilling conclusion we can draw from the persis-tence of such songs is that cartoons are, in many ways, a natural exten-sion of the minstrel show.

Patterson betrays a deep sense of envy:blacks, more carefree and uninhibited, enjoy the ineffable pleasures oftheir “native instincts,” while “modern” civilized society “has deprivedus of [such] unsuspected pleasures.”

he ability to lift your audi-ence’s feet off the floor in sympathetic rhythm is the truest test; that youwill distress the ears of really musical people goes without saying, but youwill not distress their sense of rhythm.

The review that appears as this chapter’sepigraph shows how entrepreneurs marketing cartoons attempted to cashin on the “swinging” qualities of a short to interest potential buyers.

Now that I have job security, what I fear most is the bitterness that cantrap you in a perpetual dance with the limits straight society sets.

More profoundly, homophobia has forced me to frame my life by its impera-tives. Without it, I would not identify so strongly with other gay people

so the topic of lesbianismwas inappropriate. She advised me that in revising the piece for publicationelsewhere I should be more upbeat, lest people think that lesbians are bitter

he negative majority accused me of having a ‘‘femi-nist bias’’ and asserted, contrary to glowing student evaluations, that I wasunfair to male students.

It strikes inclosed-door meetings of tenure-review and promotion committees and insecret letters of recommendation.

We offer you our set of interlocutors, those who shaped ourthinking about feminist ethnography, as a starting point from which to engage asyou begin to grapple with contemporary feminist ethnography

One of the things we wish to underscore in this text is that regardless of thegender identity of the ethnographer or whether their topic centers on analyses ofwomen or gender, it is the feminist sensibility—the commitment to attending toprevious feminist scholarship, and both respond to and integrate the complexitiesof feminist intellectual influences—that produces feminist ethnographic inquiry

intersectionality. Conceptually, an intersectional analysisargues that all categories of identity and existence operate at the same time in aperson’s experience of oppression and subordination.

Finally, the conflation of WoC with their research agendas—that is, the assumption that these scholars are necessarily speaking from a “native”position—continues to be a problem for female anthropologists of color

Someethnographers were inspired by the different representations of women’s experi-ences in literary works, leading them to analyze the challenges that they, as scholars,faced having “ethnographic authority” and exploring the importance of translatingcross-cultural experiences.

Ella Deloria wrote the novel Waterlily in the 1940sbased on her ethnographic research that chronicled Dakota Sioux life prior toAmerican expansionism and settler colonialism

. In the late 1930s, Phyllis Kayberry, who conductedethnographic research with Aboriginal women in Australia—resulting in her bookAboriginal Woman16—used her work to challenge negative stereotypes aboutNative women by presenting the significance of Aboriginal women’s contributionsto societal development and organization

Although many of these authors did not explicitly identify as feminists,some aimed to correct the androcentric bias that had existed in earlier ethnographicwork, an important thread in the trajectory of feminist ethnography

On the surface, Banerjee joins along line of artists—from nineteenth-century painters like Albert Bierdstadtand Thomas Moran through twenty-century photographers like AnselAdams—in presenting mountains as sacred landscapes that occupy a realmseparate from the profane space of human society.

Still, his effort to photograph the wildlife refuge was inherentlypolitical, for he hoped to convey the beauty of this remote land to a widerpublic.

to evisceratethe captions and relegate the exhibit to an obscure location. T

Gobber’sability to connect a variety of prostheses to his arm actually improves his perfor-mance of ideal Viking embodiment. For example, during dragon training, Hic-cup is about to get blasted by a Gronckle (a type of dragon), but Gobber jerksthe dragon’s mouth aside with his hook hand so it fires harmlessly into the wall;this would have been impossible with his original hand.

Jake and Hiccup occupy bodies that function through interreliance and inter-connectedness, disrupting the boundaries between the autonomous self andother. Their problem bodies provide them with the opportunities to form theseprosthetic relationships and to thrive in an embodiment that exists beyond theableist myth of an impermeable, bounded self.

Avatar’s Jake Sully and HTTYD’s Hiccup resolve major cultural conflicts andtheir personal dilemmas by joining their bodies to animal and alien bodies andoccupying the liminal state of the amborg

he ‘problem’ body standsfor those bodily realities that [ . . . ] represent the anomalies that contradict anormative understanding of physical being”

In my discussion of prosthesis that follows, I argue that, in Avatar and Howto Train Your Dragon, Jake Sully and Hiccup engage in prosthetic relationshipsbecause of their status as “problem bodies.

The prosthetic in film requires viewers to “participate in a disabilitydiscourse” (Chivers and Markotić 4) that disrupts “subject positions of able-bodiedness and the naturalization of the whole, functionally abled Body”

two agents engage as prostheses

rosthesis is commonly defined as a body or mechanism thatjoins with one’s natural 1 body to correct a perceived deficiency or to fill aperceived absenc

Who would have predicted that the art from a tiny ethnic minority could become anational treasure?

I have begun to think of certain works of art that hold inharmonious histories together as aform of ecolonial holism

Inadequate intersectional analysis

Because of the danger in which we live, transfeminism believes that violence against trans people isone of the largest issues we must work on. We may be hurt and disappointed that some women-onlyevents refuse to let us in, but it is the violence against us that has literally killed us or forced us to commitsuicide way too often for way too long. We have no choice but to act, immediately

To say that one has a female mind or soul would mean there are male and female minds thatare different from each other in some identifiable way, which in turn may be used to justify discriminationagainst women. Essentializing our gender identity can be just as dangerous as resorting to biologicalessentialism.

he issue is not even whether or not the sex one was assigned matches heror his gender identity; it is whether or not intersex people are given real choice over what happens to theirbodies

The suggestion that transwomen are inherently more privileged than other women is as ignorant as claiming that gay male couplesare more privileged than heterosexual couples because both partners have male privilege

Instead of claiming that we have never benefitedfrom male supremacy, we need to assert that our experiences represent a dynamic interaction betweenmale privilege and the disadvantage of being trans

Transfeminism challenges all women, including trans women, toexamine how we all internalize heterosexist and patriarchal mandates of genders and what globalimplications our actions entail; at the same time, we make it clear that it is not the responsibility of afeminist to rid herself of every resemblance to the patriarchal definition of femininity.

Trans women often find themselveshaving to “prove” their womanhood by internalizing gender stereotypes in order to be acknowledged aswomen or to receive hormonal and surgical interventions. This practice is oppressive to trans and non-trans women alike, as it denies uniqueness of each woman.

First, it is our belief that each individual has the right todefine her or his own identities and to expect society to respect them. This also includes the right toexpress our gender without fear of discrimination or violence. Second, we hold that we have the sole rightto make decisions regarding our own bodies, and that no political, medical or religious authority shallviolate the integrity of our bodies against our will or impede our decisions regarding what we do withthem.

Transfeminism is primarily a movement by and for trans women who view their liberation to beintrinsically linked to the liberation of all women and beyond.

the phrase “trans women” is at times used to referto those individuals who identify, present or live more or less as women despite their birth sex assignmentto the contrary.

This form of feminism argues against binarisms as the primary organizingstructure of society, such that categories like male/female or Black/white need to berethought.

“Third World” as including Black,Latino, Asian, and Indigenous peoples in the United States, Europe, and Australia,as well as those from Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, South andSoutheast Asia, East Asia, South Africa, and Oceania.

In England, Black feminism was the term used to include Asianand African women as a way to capture the fact that women from these locationshad been subjected to colonization in their countries of origin and to racism inEngland.

A historical mate-rialist perspective interrogates the causes of societal change and the developmentof society by examining the economic system that operates at particular moment

Cultural feminists are less interested in equality per se and instead argue forthere to be a greater societal value placed on women’s roles and work

Radical feminists argue that women’s oppressed status cutsacross race, culture, and class and uses an analysis of the structure of sex/genderto understand women’s oppression

Liberal feminists believe that all people are equal and oppression existsbecause of the way that people are conditioned or socialized. Since it is societalnorms that orchestrate how women and men are expected to act, the societymust be changed. That change comes by making institutions accountable

etiology, or cause, of stratification

Emi Koyama’s “The Transfeminist Manifesto” evoked the polarization andfragmentation of feminist groups in the late twentieth century to call for more inclu-sive coalitional politics that includes and values the contributions of trans women

For instance, historians have engagedin debates over who started the Stonewall riots during a 1969 police raid of theStonewall Inn, a gay tavern in Greenwich Village, New York: a multiracial coalitionof drag queens or an implicitly white group of “fluffy sweater boys, dykes, sissies,college students, boys in chinos and penny loafers.”1

Their oppression didnot come from having to stay home; rather, it came from having to engage in forcedor wage labor and reproductive labor, which includes the social and householdwork that sustains society. A second exa

We offer you this working definition of feminist ethnograph

—praxis—grounded in an effort to explore situationsfrom the perspective of those living the experiences being researched

Flora Tristan

involves becoming immersed in a situation and/or among a group ofpeople to understand society from the point of view of those being studied—whatcontemporary ethnographers have come to call the emic perspective. Ethnographicdescription, including the etic or analytical point of view of the ethnographer, isthus a researcher’s primary tool to convey knowledge about a particular culturalgroup.

a feminist epistemology, an examination ofhow knowledge is produced from a feminist standpoint.

ethnography attends to the dynamics of power in social interaction that starts froma gender analysis. By gender analysis, we mean that a feminist ethnographic proj-ect takes into account all people in a field site/community/organization, and paysparticular attention to gender by honing in on people’s statuses, the different waysin which (multiple) forms of privilege allow them to wield power or benefit fromit, and the forces and processes that emerge from all of the above.

The goal of feminist ethnography is transgression toward the heightened aimof freedom.

Importantly, I believe that femi-nist research must in some way respond to and possibly intervene in somesignificant genealogy of feminist knowledge formation

A space, on the other hand, is something that is created by theintention of humans working together to create new meanings and practicesaround some coalescing vision. This includes creating physical, social, orintimate space where people who are similarly minded can come together tosimply be.

I think of feminist ethnography as a form of community engagement andcommunity-immersive participatory research that provides opportunity forprolonged mutual reflection on some sort of knowledge that has an ulti-mately emancipatory aim.

By feminist sensibility, we mean the ability to appreciate and respond to thecomplex intellectual and theoretical influences of feminist theory, thought, practice,and politics

You will see how it has beenproduced and circulated, and you will explore the challenges and possibilities thatopen up when you engage feminist ethnography as a theoretical, empirical, politi-cal, and potentially activist project

Rather than suggest one monolithic set oftenets, we draw on the concept of un choque, or “cultural collisions,” discussed byChicana feminist Gloria Anzaldúa. For those who inhabit more than one culture—as so many of us do—we frequently receive multiple, often conflicting messages,as Anzaldúa describes them “self-consistent but habitually incomparable framesof reference.”6 In her work, the collision of cultures forces la mestiza to engage inself-making—that is, the creation of her own identity. We apply the concept of unchoque in the text when we present ideas that are sometimes contradictory or chal-lenging within feminist thinking.

First, we hope you will use the discussions in the book to arriveat some understanding of how feminist frameworks and writing can be useful as acritical approach to everyday experiences. The other meaning is to consider care-fully, or think through, aspects of planning and the implementation of a project

artists (with the exception of Bazille, who was killed in 1870) settled into more stable circumstances. TheImpressionists’ subjects of the 1870s gave no hint of the destruction of the war. In celebrating the Frenchcountryside and the new face of Paris, they, like other citizens, seemed to be interested in putting thenational humiliation behind them.

Many of theImpressionists had direct contact with members of the older generation, whom they sometimesencountered in the 1860s painting in the forest of Fontainebleau.

Impressionism grew out of traditions of landscape painting and Realism in France. The immediatepredecessors of the Impressionists were Gustave Courbet and the Barbizon painters

Typical Impressionist paintings are landscapes or scenes of modern life, especially of bourgeois recreation.These non-narrative paintings demonstrate an attention to momentary effects of light, atmosphere ormovement. The paintings are often small in scale and executed in a palette of pure, intense colours, withjuxtaposed brushstrokes making up a field without conventional perspectival space or hierarchies offorms. Despite stylistic differences, the artists shared a concern for finding a technical means to expressindividual sensation

The "new women" of the twentieth century, in spite of their "larger outlookon life," wrote a doctor in the Eugenics Review in 191I , were less fit than theirpredecessors "to become the mothers of a stronger and more virile race, ableto keep Britain in its present proud position among the nations of the world.

Numerous historians have connected such attacks to the growing pre-occupationwith the quantity and quality of the future of the race as England was increas-ingly involved in imperial and economic competition.17 Within this context,women's work was a source of major anxiety because it threatened the family,nation, and race. To many contemporaries its regulation would serve the publicinterest.

commented upon by thosewhose pedigrees may go back to nobles loyal to the Britishcrown under Olive and Hastings, when the forebears of theinsolent and arrogant snobs who snub them were probablysweeping warehouses or packing parcels.

call on us, and let us take our husbands to see them ! " saythese summary reformers ; and it would be comic if it werenot sad. For this is the comprehension shown of thecharacters and peoples over whom our sway is one of moralinfluence rather than physical force !

As long as oneremain in the uppermost administrative circles, with gover-nors, lieutenant-governors, residents, high-court judges, com-manding officers, and district superintendents of police, all iswell. The educated native, holding, it may be, some highcivil appointment, and able by manners and breeding (for anative gentleman does exist, and not very rarely either) toconform to the usages of society, is made welcome, treatedwith courtesy, which it does not lower the proud ruling raceto show, and there is a kindly consideration evinced towardswhat we may regard as mere caste prejudices

Theetiquette of a vicereine's drawing-room, which takes place inthe throne-room, is precisely similar to that observed for pre-sentation to the Queen, with the exception that court trainsare not worn.

However, a less well-known feature is thatwhen the patriarchal structures of their own society seemed to be underattack in the light of the women’s movement in contemporary Britain,Anglo-Indian anxieties took the form of contradictions and ambiguitiestowards certain ’native’ patriarchal practices (such as purdah), which theynow reinscribed in their discursive writings as exemplary. In other words,models of a perceived Eastern female docility were often selectivelydrawn upon in a process constituting what we may call an ’Indianisation’of the Anglo-Indian female paradigm. A

Clearlybased on the feminine role-model provided by the English woman, itdemonstrated how the colonisers and their Indian allies participated in astrategy to conceal and suppress the supposed libidinousness of theirsubject women, and the body of the ’native’ woman became the site of acontest between ’tradition’ and ’modernity’

By the 1890s Billington pointed out that manyAnglo-Indians found these garments &dquo;’unseemly&dquo;, &dquo;indecorous&dquo;, or as Ihave even frankly heard it called, &dquo;indecent&dquo;’ (Billington 1973:178). How-ever, displaying the somewhat broader perspective of the metropolitanvisitor, Billington was dismissive about Anglo-India’s ’pious susceptibil-ities’ and ridiculed their not finding native garments ’sufficiently opaque!’(ibid.)

A well-established colonial trait found in lands where local women usethe veil has almost invariably been to make those behind the veil theobject of the white man’s sexual fantasy, projecting them as excitingly sen-sual, subservient and eager to please.

A variety of constructs of the zenana are available for that period. Forinstance, one strand in white women’s discursive writings of the late 19thcentury de-sexualised the harem and domesticated it as an image of themiddle-class home .14 Thus, Mary Frances Billington, the journalist-authorof Women of India (1895) sought to demystify its lurid aura and called it ’arather dull place, if anything’ (Billington 1973: XII). However, while onemissionary opinion located it as an oppressive world under the tyranny ofthe mother-in-law (Weitbrecht 1875: 43), in contrast Billington (1973: XIII)observed that ’Indian women are not altogether in such a pitiful plight assome of their so-called friends come and tell us’.

Notunlike the memsahib, the purdahnashin (women who observed purdah)too were inscribed as idle, whatever may have been the actual householdburden they had to bear. ’Idleness and listlessness are also grave defectsof the character of Hindu ladies ... they should be well and activelyemployed’, admonished The Calcutta Review in 1864, while Weitbrechtremarked on ’the monotony of zenana life’ about a decade later pointingout that ’the life of the rich lady is most uninteresting’

More frequent werefemale missionary visits behind the veil, in the form of zenana schools or,from the 1880s onwards, as a part of the Female Medical Aid programme.

hus, British nannies were strongly recommendedfor the child’s early years in India in The Complete Indian Housekeeper andCook (1888) co-authored by the vocal and influential memsahib writer,Flora Annie Steel, which soon became a virtual ’bible’ for all memsahibs(Steel and Gardiner 1909: 166).

In a somewhat earlier era another important group of Indian womenwho interacted on an erotic plane with the European coloniser before thelarge-scale arrival of the memsahibs were the courtesans or nautch (dan-cing) girls.

The ethos of empirecame to be rooted in a middle-class sensibility marked by a preference fora self-contained English-style society-as it was felt that the stability of em-pire necessitated, among other things, the reaction of such a society mouldedon the pattern of home. It also required a distancing of the English admin-istrator from the ’native’ woman, thereby containing in effect the power of’native’ female sexuality over the white man.

Dami~ i m re n•truct :>darist era y so that it ould b in, a hid fc r th m d-rn exaltation of the individual . e

r pid vane n e of hip r on a mobility of id ntit that fru trat d the attempt to apturhis image.

In the matter of ladies' travelling accommodation, how-ever, there are one or two points upon which some of ourEnglish companies might well come to India for instruction.On the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India line, for instance,the arrangements are notably satisfactory ; and in the ladies'waiting-rooms baths may be obtained in

nd in truth, if the generosityand good feeling evinced towards our native fellow-subjectsin its upper ranks were displayed in the lower ones, theEnglishman or woman out from home would find very littlethat is unworthy of our jealously maintained Britishtraditions.

Anglo-Indian hostesses oftenmake loud lamentation about the laziness and incompetencyof their servants, butI imagine that the majority of themon their return must think regretfully of the deft, obliging,willing, resourceful fellows they have left behind, and mustfind marked difference in the attention and quality of the

Pioneer, the Statesman, the Englishman, theIndian Daily News, the Times of India, the Bombay Gazette,the Madras Mail, the Madras Times, and the Morning Postof Allahaba

Being aware that thisview obtains, "Western people are secretlya little humiliatedin their innermost selves at the ideas that they know thatdancing suggests to the native mind.I know instances,indeed, in which tickets have been refused to native gentle-men for charitable entertainments in which skirt dancing hasbeen in the programme, on account of the different light inwhichitis regarded by performer and spectator. ThereuponMrs. Drye-Goodes and her class blaze up at the " disgustingtone " of prevailing native opinion round her, quite obliviousof the fact that this with equal warmth feels that the"tone" of women who dance in public leaves somethingto be desired

he fact did not escape Mr. Clement Scott, in hisrapid scamper across the dependency, who speaks with pardon-able sarcasm and warmth about it. " These highly educated,extremely intelligent Parsee ladies and gentlemen constitutethe race," he remarks, " whose lavish hospitality is acceptedby Europeans, but by some mysterious unsigned order mustnever be returned. Thus, you may play cricket with aParsee gentleman, but you must not bring him back to dinner.You may attend the soiree, of a Parsee lady, but you may notask her to drink tea at sunset on the terrace of the BombayYacht Club. You may beg for subscriptions from a Parseecapitalist to start a gymnasium, but it is etiquette to turnhis children from the doors. You may meet the elite ofParsee society at the Government House reception onMalabar Hill, but if you asked exactly the same people toyour breakfast-table you would be cut by English society."The only qualification to be made concerning this

It was a big dinnerat Government House, and a certain English " lady " wasintroduced by the aide-de-camp to a much-respected Mahom-medan high court judge a gentleman, be it said, of thehighest intelligence and learning, and well known throughoutIndia. The English female showed him not the slightestrecognition, but turned to the aide-de-camp and said excitedly," You don't suppose I'm going in to dinner with a native ? "The aide-de-camp quietly said that it had been her Excellency'spleasure thus to assign her, whereat she said, " Then the listmust be altered, or I leave.

The natural good manners, in short, of the English gentlemanor gentlewoman, which are extended at home to any inoffen-sive fellow-citizen, whether he be cabman, or costermonger, orshop-assistant, not to mention social equals, are not whollyforgotten, and one owns on seeing it to the little thrill ofsatisfaction as to the invariable savoirfaire of well-bred people

nd yet there are English people who will assure onethat truth, honour, and heroism are not to be reckonedamong the attributes of Indian women

She was not one who would be classed as " educated," forI do not think she could read a word, but she possessed in-telligence, as well as good breeding, and as a hostess wascertainly successful. She was simply dressed, and was notwearing much of her jewellery, for, as she subsequentlyexplained, there was great anxiety in the house as to the ill-ness of one of her brothers-in-law which she described verymuch as an English lady would mentioning that the hightemperature, of 102 degrees, at which he remained causedthem much uneasiness. Several questions about the Queenand the Eoyal Family were put to me by all the ladies, whospoke in a vein of respectful loyalty most pleasant to hear ;and they asked, also with intelligent interest, about myvoyage and what I had seen in Madras, especially whatnative ladies I had called on there.

Now in India the intense strength of thefamily tie and the hereditary traditions of woman's self-effacement seem to me to have imparted a kind of com-pensating mental attribute, that perhaps is not very muchless valuable a possession than a power to read without thediscriminating faculty what to read. According to modern" emancipated " lights, the answer of a poor Mahommedanwoman in Calcutta to my question as to what she regardedas the chief happiness she would desire for herself mightseem a contracted one. "To see my husband happy, andto know that what I have cooked and done for him hashelped to make him so ; to see my sons grow up as men,honest and strong, and to know that my daughters arewell married"is,in my view,a praiseworthy domesticideal, enough even when set beside the possibilities ofabank holiday on Hampstead Heath. Thought may not besubtle, and talk may not rise much beyond pice andmarriage, with these poor women; but relativelyit doesno more than that with their white sister

Even inBombay the general standard of physique, taking into con-sideration the distinctive racial attributes, was by 110 meansbad, and would have given decidedly better results than onewould obtain by placing side by side average North Countrymill hands with representatives of other English occupations.

et me take two extreme cases. The Englishwoman inmy mind, whom I have actually seen, is a woman aged beforeher time (for, relatively, child-marriage exists in our owncountry) and burdened with two or three young children tosupport. She lived in the East End of London, occupyingone small room up a steep and rickety flight of stairs, forwhich she paid two shillings a week, and considered herselffortunate in being able to earn regularly five shillings andsixpence a week in a cardboard-box factory. And thereare thousands of women in London whose weekly wageis not only no more, but often considerably less, as mustbe the case when ma.tchbox-making is paid at the rateof twopence -halfpenny a gross, the workers finding theirown paste, or mantles with elaborate trimming at six-pence each. Out of wages as scanty as these, the English-woman in winter must find fuel enough to keep somethingof the cruelly penetrating fog and frost out of her poorapartment; her food, even in its elementary simplicity oftea and bread, is to be bought; her own and her chil-dren's clothes and boots have to be provided, some fur-niture and bedding are a necessity yet the slender pittancemust suffice to purchase all. Then turn we to the otherinstance a poor widow whom I saw at Berhampore. Withindustrious labour she could earn at reeling the piercedcocoons of silk from half to three quarters of an anna a day,which far more than sufficed for the simple diet of rice, grain,and vegetables which satisfied her. There was a corner forher to sleep in the family hut ; she had nothing to providetowards the feeding and clothing of the children ; the cost o

studied dispassionately, I am very far from being prepared toadmit that the average Indian woman has any cause to envyher European sister

The zenanasystem per se is, I takeit,rathera survival in idea of theprotection that men gave to their women-folk in days whenevery man's hand was against his neighbour's, anda womanwas quite lawful prey to her captors

It is impossible yet to get away from the fact that femalelife has no very great value in the East, and there are plentyof men still to be found who argue, why should they payheavy doctors' bills for their wives when, if they die, theycan so easily replace them ? It is on this ground that I donot think India offers an unlimited field of work for Englishlady doctors. So long as these are attached to missions,associations, or hospitals, and are doing philanthropic work,all is well; but it is a matter of greater difficulty than isgenerally realized for them to build up private practicesamong the better-class women in their homes

The native practitioners knowwell that they are responsible to the Civil Surgeon of theirdistrict, and that they only treat their female patients underhis advice and control. On the other hand, English mis-sionary doctors have been known to attempt cases and evenoperations of the highest complexity merely upon their ownslender knowledge, and the results have not always beenwholly satisfactory.

WHEN I left England, I was under editorial instructions totake the journeys from Madras to Calcutta, and Bombayto Colombo turning homewards, by coasting steamers, inorder that I might see as much as possible of the averagewoman's life in the working and mercantile classes in thecomparatively rarely visited commercial cities of theCoromandel and Malabar shores. It was therefore deemedadvisable by my editor and myself that I should do thewhole of my sea travelling by one company's fleet, and ofcourse there was little choice then left in the matter, as itis only by the British India Steam Navigation Companythat such a programme could be carried out.

It tends to discredit the English reputation, andwith peoples of the Oriental temperament, to whom flowerycourtesy is one of the fine arts of existence, it is bitterlyresented at heart. Mrs. Drye-Goodes thinks no doubtthat she has effectively admonished her bearer when forsome small offence she hisses out the hateful word sowar(pig), but he does not forget, and it may be the spark thatkindles not his own only, but his tribe's hatred for the over-bearing and altogether unnecessarily insulting demeanouradopted concerning them

o whom the story of India is not of half the interest of aquarrel between two families in the street at home that sheleft, tells one with a giggle that " she hates these beastlyniggers," and thinks it something commendable to add, " wedon't let any of them come to our club." She cuts herservants' wages down to the last anna piece, and if sheascertains that they have not let her benefit to the uttermostpice of their bazaar bargainings, storms at them as pick-pockets, and launches forth on the thievish propensities ofthe dependency

so has Lady Harris, by lending her influence to diffusinggeneral and useful knowledge among the girls, rather thanencouraging a handful from among them to effect a fewshowy sensations in the examination rooms, helped to lay amuch more solid foundation for future results than those whodo not know how quietly she works

Sheis one of the best and wisest friends that the cause of femaleeducation has ever had in India, though she does not writearticles for magazines or make speeches on the subject, forshe has seen that it by no means follows that what is theperfect code for the Western girl is of necessity to be slavishlyfollowed for her of the East

A high wall andheavy iron-studded gates, similar to those characteristic ofsuch establishments in England, have to be passed to gainadmission; but, once inside, the gorgeous sunshine and theluxuriant ever-present flowering plants, which thrive in allcorners and crannies, give a far less sombre appearance tothe well-kept place than that of the grey, granite-flaggedyards associated at home with prison life. Considerableenlargements and improvements were being carried out inthe men's workshops, and when these are complete theprison will as a whole be one of the best equipped in thewhole dependenc

Comparing this with our own ratio, I find in the cor-responding British judicial statistics, that during 1891 theratio of female to male offenders sentenced to penal servitudewas 9'2 to 90'8, which is nearly double. It is true that 1892saw these figures standing at 6'3 to 937 ; but the fluctua-tions in them during the past twenty years or so have beenso marked that I fear, for the credit of my sex, the lowerproportion is hardly likely to be maintained.

The very smallratio of female to male malefactorsis,however, one of themost remarkable and interesting aspects of the whole socialsystem of the East from whatever point of view one regardsit; while favourable to women as even the mere figures are,their statistical moralityis placed even higher when certainfacts concerning those who are classified as offenders aretaken into consideration.

alaams over, I came to the conclusion that, so faras talk was concerned, I had paid many far less interestingvisits in London

the beautiful arts ofstitchery and taste of colour may be lost, and that would intruth bea loss to India herself as well as art-loving Europe.

There was, ofcourse, a certain amount of fine dust in the air, but as onesaw them with their saris of coarse yet clean calico disposedover their heads, and the heavy barbaric ornaments on theirwrists and ankles, one's mind irresistibly travelled back tothe grimy unloveliness of a walled-in London dustyard, withits noisy sorters, in their tawdry feather hats or battered andrusty crape bonnets, and it was here that I first began towonder whether the lot of the woman workers in th

At least these women, if their wages were onlyabout twopence-halfpenny per day, were under a sunny sky,they could bring their babies with them, and were notdisbursing for care of them any portion of their slenderearnings to some old " day nurse " who would administer ina noxious form the very drug in whose preparation theywere assistin

faith with the Dorsetshire labourers, in whosemidst I was brought up, that there was no real gain to thehousehold when the mother went out to labour, since theextra expenditure in " shop bread," and the wear and tear ofthe children's clothes, which were perforce neglected duringher absence, quite swallowed up the apparent gain of herearnings. These drawbacks do not exist in a land where allfood is so simple, and where clothes are put on without thenecessity for cut, or fit, or stitch, and where the requirementsof everyday comfort are so quickly realize

o take agriculture first, the greatest of all the " great "industries of the dependency, and in which hundreds ofthousands, even millions of the sex are employed, it wouldperhaps afford a more exact parallel to place the Indianworking woman side by side with the women of France,where the system of peasant proprietorship obtains, ratherthan to institute any comparison with those who toil uponthe soil in England, as though occasionally they lend theirlabour for wages to the wealthier zamindars of their district,they more often assist their fathers and husband

Yes, for all her three farthings a day,I think that poor old Hindoo woman might sometimes havebeen envied by her who nominally was making twelve timesthat sum

since the one would indi-cate a genuine desire, while the other, however nobly inten-tioned, has all the time an artificial position in the generaleconomy.

At present I fearthat the training of them to be school-teachers is too closelyidentified with the missionary movement for it to be regardedas standing upon a satisfactory basis, from the point of viewof future native development.

Christianity, appeal totheir hearts by wisdom and the personal example of beautifullives, and you will see such an era of progress set in thatthe regeneration of India will be a reality, and the conversionof its people an accomplished fact. When that is done,England's great mission in India will have been accomplished,and it will be the proudest achievement that was everentrusted

No less important asan item to be taken into account are caste prejudices ;and even if a woman had overcome her inherent dislike togiving water or performing certain offices for patients oflower caste than her own, it must be remembered thatpatients of higher religious grade than her own might beunable to accept her ministrations.

On theBombay side at least, therefore, the Parsee girls have it verymuch in their power not only to mitigate present suffering,but to show the possibilities to other women of a remunera-tive and honourable career.

Inthe second, their knowledge of the vernacular most spokenaround them, and their innate acquaintance with the habitsand prejudices common to half or possibly three-quarters oftheir ancestry is directly in their favour, even against themore highly skilled woman doctor coming to the East for thefirst time, and with no more knowledge of Hindustani orBengali, Tamil or Gujerati than she has picked up frombooks

how far the more emancipated of theeducated native women have been worthy of the confidencethat Lady Dufferin thus showed in their ability, and haveresponded to the calls of their suffering sisters.

Lady Dufferin grasped what few Indiansocial reformers do, in that, if the stream of medical aid wasto be an abundant one, spreading its benefits far and wide, thesource must be from within, and not one dependent upon theprecarious supplies from home charity or Englishwomen'senterprise.

The factis that the erection of fine buildings, with theirinvariable memorial stones and flourishing inscriptions,is thefavourite form for Indian native charity to take

Nor,I think,is this surprising,if we look at home. Evenwith ourselves, and the knowledge that we have of the skilland the kindness and the attention of our hospitals, there arestill very few of the middle or upper classes who willvoluntarily enter one, even with the privacy of the payingward.

The comparative wantof success is due, not to any failure on the part of the pro-moters to secureit,but to innate ideas and customs whichprevent those for whom these benefits were intended fromprofiting as fully as they might by whatis available for them

These, therefore,already in a measure provided for, Lady Dufferin couldregard as presenting less immediately pressing claims, andthe great vital principle underlying her whole splendideffort was to carry help and alleviation into the remotechambers of zenanas and libi-gliars, behind whose jealouslyclosed doors no men, save those of the family, might pass,and to which, if such assistance were to be taken, it must beat the hands of trained women

1. Medical tuition, including the teaching and training in India of womenas doctors, hospital assistants, nurses, and mid wives.2. Medical relief, including(a) the establishment under female superintendence of dispensariesand cottage hospitals for the treatment of women and children ;(6) the opening of female wards under female superintendence inexisting hospitals and dispensaries ;(c) the provision of female medical officers and attendants forexisting female wards ;(d) the founding of hospitals for women where special funds orendowments are forthcoming.3. The supply of trained female nurses and midwives for women andchildren in hospitals and private houses.

but spoken of as only anotherconfirmatory evidence in the long list of experiences that inIndia, as elsewhere, the best progress is made by gentle.steps

Not only will thishave a swifter and deeper influence, coming from suchquarters, but with the smouldering ashes of hatred burieddarkly, and seldom perceived, as they are against the Britishrule, any effort in this direction, initiated from our side,would have been undoubtedly met by more than coverthostility.

Such, how-ever, is not the view taken of it by Hindu or Muslimreligion or custom, and I have tried to view the questionas they do, and see the advantages they find in it forit is idle to suppose that they would have maintaineda system down so many of the centuries if it had notpossessed certain recommendations in their eyes ratherthan to look at it from the strictly European standpoint,and as a peg for all the critical fault-finding to be hung on

a big weight of prejudice against the system, which is notat all borne out, viewed in the dispassionate light of workingresults.

So far, however, from this being an "awful example" ofthe evils of the system, it was very much the reverse, forthe girl-mother was tall, strong, and vigorous, nursing herchild adequately, and looking in every sense the pictureof robust animal health

She, and all theolder women of the household, watch eagerly for signs ofphysical development, and hail her attainment of woman-hood as an event of great joy, which may be discussedwithout the slightest reticence

Heis generally from five to eight years older than the bride inthe ranks of all above the very poorest, so that when shecan be taken to his own house he is generally from nineteento twenty-two, against her thirteen to sixteen

And so far," she continued, " I don'tthink you can call the working results of our system afailure. Take our own family, and we can carry our pedigreeback for twenty generations that means a great manydaughters but never has one of them discredited or dis-honoured our women's fair name. Are there many Europeanfamilies who could say as much ?

The two you

Eeligion prescribes that, like the Eoman bride of early days,a Hindu girl shall be given (tradita in manum) by her fatherinto the power of her husband ; caste complications demandthat the ceremonial portion of the transfer shall be effectedwhile she is still a child ; while the character of society, themoral tone of the men, the seclusion of the women, theimmemorial taboos and conventions of family etiquetterender it impossible that she should be wooed and won likeher European sister.

Bargains, however, must betaken when they are to be had ; and no father dares runthe risk of waiting till his daughter is physically mature.He is bound to be on the safe side, and therefore he marriesher, child as she may be, whenever a good match offers.

ndeed, it is only by the bearing ofchildren that she can rise above her curse of disabilities as amere woman, bearing in herself the taint of original sin, thatdemands for its expiation the gift of a son to carry thedomestic worship of her husband's family

NACCURATE sensationalism reaches its climax over thesystem of child-marriage. The assiduously circulated ideaof missionary reports and social grievance seekers is thatthe wretched girl-infant is married at about five or six yearsof age, generally to some one vastly older than herself, whotakes her away whenever he pleases, and exercises whateverviolence of brutal lust he cares for.

Perhapsa beginning might be made by offering prizes atthe village fair-time for proficiency in spinning, dairy work,cooking, and the preparation of simples

the danger of teaching them up to a more advancedstandard than will probably be their husband's attainment

Miss Brookeis not onlya lady of wideculture, but she hasa pleasant sympathy with the ways andworkings of native character, while she grasps, as many well-intentioned English ladies fail to do, that the teaching suitedto girls at homeis not of necessity the best for their sistersout here

The example inthis direction, or in that of education of the native States,hasa more weighty influence thanis often admitted, andinnovations launched from them are likely to be accepted farmore readily and with better grace than anything directlyinitiated under British prestige

The kindergarten formed alarge department, and in no London school or institution haveI ever seen one better equipped and supplied than this is

with all the frankness and independence ofEnglish women, to do their daily work of teaching, nursing,or study, and I have even heard of one or two who fill book-keeping or secretarial posts.

Parsees

with her thin bony hands, in its exact centre, the shadow ofa goose's head! It was one of the best I ever saw doneunder any circumstances, and she allowed it to rest open-beaked for a few seconds as if amazed at what it was hearing,and then set it wagging as though it were fully endorsing allthat the lecturer was saying.

hundred and twenty women are studying thus, carrying theirreading on to English, arithmetic, history, and geography,being visited at home weekly by the native governesses andoccasionally attending lectures

Gosha girls

Mrs. Brander, I find that out of the totalnumber of 8458 girls receiving public instruction in Madrascity, 168 are classified as coming from the "richer"

Madras has alwaysprided itself upon keep-ing well in the van ofeducational progress,

There is a percentage of Christian girls amongits collegiate students, but the majority are Brahmos, themost emancipated and advanced of the Hindu community

Miss Chandramukhi Bose, M.A.

she deprecatesstrongly the tendency to push the girls on to universitydistinctions. The results are showy, no doubt, and look wellin school reports; but in practice the young women becomearrogant, are seldom successful as teachers, and very fre-quently develop hysteria and nervous complaints. Itis toogreata brain effort without any hereditary preparation, andto exhibit these girls as triumphs of the systemis far fromadvantageous as an object-lesson to thoughtful eyes

Eamabai was induced to abandonher original plan, which guaranteed that Hindu religiousand caste observances should not be interfered with, andto introduce Christian prayer and instruction.

In the first place, it took the unfortunate girlaway from where she was probably not wanted, and placed auseful vocation in her hands ; in the second, by only receivingthose of caste, she had commenced a band of teachers whocan go into the zenanas of their co-religionists on equal socialterms.

amaba

But before we can view the subject with anygenuine satisfaction, and feel that from being an artificiallyfostered production it has become a living reality, we musthave created both a genuine desire for learning for its ownsake and further provided the means by which it can benaturally and on the spot supplied, according to the inherentprejudices and beliefs of the people.

Shewho has accepted Christianity has in the first place to cutherself away from her own people by her change of faith. Farfrom being honoured for this, she has become to them as out-caste, and teaching by her, instead of being the commendablework that it is with us, is rather degraded to the aspect ofbeing the one calling into which she could enter.

a far bigger pill of Biblical and ecclesias-tical learning can be and is given with the jam of generalteaching

I hope we are all as good Zoroastriansas any ; but, you see, it is a great advantage to the boys toknow English, and they get no harm if they have to hear alittle of your religion.

Personally, my own bias was to haveadmired and defended all missionary labours. Brought upand still an attached member of the Church of England

There are insidious possibilities in theprecept that the reading of a chapter in the Bible and the" force of silent influence " is enough when coupled withprayer, and it is certain that the religious influence exerted inthe schools has but the scantiest results

Even the sternest critics of modern missionary methodsare compelled to admit how much the evangelizing agencieshave done in the direction of female education

9 '44 per cent, of the entire female population of Indiaenumerated at 113,406,669

shows that even among the womenare to be founda few who love learning and literaturefor its own sake.

who preach in chapels or wear uncompromising trousersto ride bicycles astride through the city, who are looked uponas unfortunate aberrations by their less go-ahead sisters.

and has passed through its phase ofpassively indifferent neglect to one of toleration.

But now that heis himselfa judgeit may be, ora deputy-collector on special duty, involvingperhapsa really high degree of specialized scientific attain-ment, he begins to think he would like his wife to knowalittle more also of the world's broader affairs.I saw severalinstances in which the ladies of the Church of England orother Zenana Missions had been asked to instruct in Englishand other branches of knowledge the girl-wives of youngmen at the universities.

Unlike our-selves at home, she is not for ever crying out in newspapersand on platforms for new openings of occupation, nor is sheinfluenced by American examples to endeavour to enter uponvocations vastly better filled by men

I learnt first that the " object letter " describedin his story "Beyond the Pale/' in which a broken glassbangle, a red dhak flower, a pinch of cattle food, and anumber of cardamons was intended to be construed into awidow's request for a visit at eleven o'clock, was a perfectlyprobable missive

If not, it maygive them some difficulty to reconcile their demonstrativesympathy with the Indian woman's " down-trodden " con-dition, with the knowledge that she sooner and more fullylearns the mysteries of existence than any others of her sex inthe world. Yet, from their point of view, she is the " awfulexample " of humiliation ! I give them the information, andleave them to argue over it

s such they discuss them, butnot merely from a morbid love of nauseous detail, as thosewho do not understand at once define it to be

The revolting and ignorant practices of the dhaismay be held responsible for a large number more of deathsthat could be avoided, and the mothers who have learnt thecomfort to themselves and the greater safety to their offspringof the more scientific "Western methods, are certainly showinga willingness to accept them, which they do not accord toother innovations of education or freedom.

I only heard ofone case where there were two wives, and these ladies I wastaken to visit, under the impression that, like the majorityof travellers out from England, I should not be satisfied thatI had seen genuine native life unless it was shown me undera polygamous aspect

a few years of wedded life, prove unfruitful, her husband isconsidered, even in the most civilized castes, fully justifiedin taking to himself another wife