Learning basic greetings and expressions in a variety of languages and dialects. Ask speakers of those languages in your classroom to help you with the articulation and inflection.

This approach acknowledges and emphasizes the value and need for fluency and com· potency in using both the first language and English

<;ognilivc academic language prolicicncy (CAL

A second language learner must· consider this difference when using English because English morphology has a dif-ferent system for indicating subject-verb agreement

These children develop bidinlectism,

Slandard American English (SAE) is often referred lo as the "most correct" form of language used in I he Unilecl Stales and is the form of l,mguage considered appropriate in corporate, business. government, and formal educalional settings.

Gullah began as a pidgin language used among the slaves, who were brought to that coastal area from many different tribes along the western coast of Africa, and the plantation owners.

Thus, when these children experience recitational questions in a school setting, they may be confused as to the purpose of the ques· tioning and the expected response.

In contrast, the language used in teaching a science lesson at school on the structure of plants may describe the same infor-mation out of context and be focused on learning lesson-specific facts from an oral lecture. In addition, the role of questioner will differ.

hen com· pared to children from middle or upper SES. children from low SES environments showed differences in brain activation during rending tasks involving phonological skills (Noble el al., 2006).

For older children, formal school-based linguistic routines may include saying the Pledge of Allegiance, taking allendance, greeting someone in Lhe morning, and saying good-bye in the afternoon

When speech directed to young children is at a slower pace or temf it allows for linguistic processing: it takes time lo process speech cognitively. If y, have ever been inn setting where you were a nonnative speaker, you may ha wished that tho native speakers would just speak more slowly.

46 ~H Chapter 2 3. Utterances are not syntactically complex. 4. Utterances have a higher pitch and intonation is more exaggerated. 5. Utterances are redundant or repetitive in part or in whole. 6. Ull?rances have a slower rate or tempo. 7. Utterances are more closely tied lo tho immediate context. 8. Utterances have discourse features that encourage children lo participate and to clarify the child's responses.

Specifically, it acknowledges behaviorism's recognition of the environment's responses lo young children's communicative allempts, nativ-ism's recognition of tho human capacity for processing linguistic information, and the cognitive developmentalist's contention that language development is infl u-enced by the nature and sequence of cognitive development. Extensive research conducted by Bloom and Tinker (2

earned, il does nol provide a complete explanation for lhe development of other language competencies. Specifically, the behaviorist perspective does not explain bow children learn lo express novel utterances (Harris, 1992), such as their own invented words or phrases that have nol boon used by the other speakers in their environment. . Using the

According lo Piaget, lhe second stage of cognitive development is the preopera-tional stage. This stage begins al about 2 years of age and extends to about 7 years of nge. Children in this stage "begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings" (Santrock. 2001, p. 36). Piaget (1955) considered children's initial speech to be egocentric, focused on their own perceptions, which may reflect distorted perceptions or relations. Gradually, as children develop cognitively, their speech becomes socialized, or reflective of more logical thinking. B

The development of symbolic representation changes 11 child's thinking because ii is now possible to "invoke objects which are not present perceptually ... reconstruct the past ... or moke plans for the future" (Piaget, 1961, in Paciorek & Munro, 1999, p. 7)

This perspective also proposes that a child learns language by using the same mechanisms as for other learning. Thus, there is no unique language mechanism. The close relation between cognitive devel-opment and language is based on the beliof that. for language lo develop, specific cognilivo growth must occur first

child's LAD is activated,

Jn summary, the nalivist perspective describes language development as an innate, instinctual process where children develop language by discovering the structure of their language

Or is the child already "preprogrammed" for language develo11ment in such a way that heredity and matu-ration are the major influences, with experience and context exerting only limited influence'?

Harris (1990) pointed out that the success of these scaffolded conversations depends on the adult's sensi-tivity Lo and interpretation of the child's communicative attempt.

Positive reinforce· ment may come from the excited response of parents to thoir child's verbal attempts.

For example, in English, adjec-tives immediately precede the nouns they modify: "The beautiful flower was on the table," not "The flower beautiful was on the table." When children are learning lo speak English, their awareness of the position of adjectives relative lo the nouns they modify is evident even in their two-word ullerances: "big ball," "blue car." This occurs long before children can consciously identify adjectives and the words they