his theoryof ethics is not based on religious belief of reward and punishment in the afterlife (as was Plato’s) but on how to achieve happiness in asecular society by rational control of the emotions

Most enthymemes are derived from thesespecies that are particular and specific, fewer from the common [top-ics].70Just as in the case of topoi, so also in the case of enthymemes,a distinction should be made between the species and the topoifromwhich they are to be taken.

for everyone thinks the laws ought torequire this, and some even adopt the practice and forbid speakingoutside the subject, as in the Areopagus too,14rightly so providing;for it is wrong to warp the jury by leading them into anger or envy or

Thus, one who is going to give advice on finances should knowwhat and how extensive are the revenues of the city, so that if anyhave been left out they may be added and if any are rather small theymay be increased; and all the expenses of the city as well

he deliberative speaker[the end] is the advantageous [sympheron]83and the harmful (forsomeone urging something advises it as the better course and one dis-suading dissuades on the ground that it is worse), and he includesother factors as incidental: whether it is just or unjust, or honorable ordisgraceful; for those speaking in the law courts [the end] is the just[dikaion] and the unjust, and they make other considerations inciden-tal to these; for those praising and blaming [the end] is the honorable[kalon] and the shameful,

Each of these [species] has its own “time”; for the deliberativespeaker, the future (for whether exhorting or dissuading he advisesabout future events);79for the speaker in court, the past (for he alwaysprosecutes or defends concerning what has been done); in epideicticthe present is the most important;80for all speakers praise and blamein regard to existing qualities, but they often also make use of otherthings, both reminding [the audience] of the past

Aristotle’s concept of epideictic is the most problematic of the speciesand it has remained a problem in rhetorical theory, since it becomes the category for all forms of discourse that are not specifically deliberative orjudicial.

Speeches using paradigms are not less persuasive, butthose with enthymemes excite more favorable audience reaction.

I call a rhetorical syllo-gism an enthymeme, a rhetorical induction a paradigm. And all[speakers] produce logical persuasion by means of paradigms orenthymemes and by nothing other than these.

[There is persuasion] through character whenever the speech isspoken39in such a way as to make the speaker worthy of credence; forwe believe fair-minded people to a greater extent and more quickly[than we do others],

it is necessary for pisteisand speeches [as a whole] to be formed on the basis of common[beliefs], as we said in the Topics25about communication with a crowd

3. As things are now,10those who have composed Arts of Speechhave worked on a small part of the subject; for only pisteis11are artis-tic (other things are supplementary), and these writers say nothingabout enthymemes, which is the “body” of persuasion,12while theygive most of their attention to matters external to the subject

If successful,the interlocutor led the respondent into a contradiction or logically indefen-sible position by means of definition and divisions of the question or bydrawing analogies, much as Socrates is shown doing in the earlier Platonicdialogues;

i. Inductive argument, called paradigm, or example,drawing a particular conclusion from one or moreparallelsii. Deductive argument, called enthymeme, or rhetoricalsyllogism, drawing a conclusion from stated orimplied premises

It seems likelythat Aristotle taught rhetoric to the young Alexander, and if so, whathe would have taught him were practical skills in public speaking andan ability to evaluate speeches by others who came before him, withwarnings about the moral dangers inherent in rhetoric.

Logic and dialectic belong in that class. Aristotelian scholars of late antiquity and the Middle Ages regarded rhetoric as one of thesemethods or tools, largely on the basis of what is said in On Rhetoric

f Plato’s call for fitting the speechto the souls of the audience (1.2.3). These become Aristotle’s Bthos,or the projection of the character of the speaker as trustworthy;pathos, or consideration of the emotions of people in the audience;andlogos, inductive and deductive logical argument

By composing speecheson such themes (as described in his Antidosisand elsewhere), hesought to condition students’ moral behavior so that they would thinkand speak noble, virtuous ideas and implement them in civic policy,thus providing a response to claims that rhetoric was an art of decep-tion and flattery

With this he contrasts (183b36) the educational techniqueof the sophist Gorgias in which, he says, students were assignedready-made speeches to memorize, “as though a shoemaker were totry to teach his art by presenting his apprentice with an assortment ofshoes.”

They were, hecomplains, concerned only with judicial rhetoric and its parts andneglected deliberative oratory, a finer genre, and they gave too muchattention to arousing emotions to the neglect of logical argument.

Their rivalries and argumentscontrast with values commonly found in Middle Eastern and FarEastern cultures, where strong central governments discouraged orprevented public debate (and where organized athletics did notdevelop).

Thus in 347 b.c.e., inanticipation of or soon after the death of Plato, Aristotle left Athensand went first to Assos in Asia Minor and then to the island of Lesbos,where he did much of his biological research

In 335 Aristotle returned to Athens andopened his own school there in the peripatos(“colonnade,” thus thename “Peripatetic” school) of the gymnasium of the Lyceum, not farfrom where the Hilton Hotel now stands

Dylan left the prison moved to write a song. In “Hurricane,” released on his 1976 album Desire, he narrates Carter’s tale of inequity in eleven linear verses: How can the life of such a manbe in the palm of some fool’s hand?To see him obviously framedcouldn’t help but make me feel ashamed to live in a landwhere justice is a game.

When I was growing up in Morocco, my encounters with America were primarily cultural. I watched Little House on the Prairie on television, pined for Michael Jackson’s red leather jacket, and copied Prince’s dance moves

But familiarity with America’s culture and use of its educational resources did not translate for me into an endorsement of its foreign policy, which is why I have always found the concept of winning hearts and minds to be absurd.

I am an anthropologist of religion. I did my first stint of fieldwork with middle-class Londoners who identified as witches, druids, and initiates of the Western Mysteries.

How could so many people have believed something so obviously wrong?