Spatial and temporal abundance patterns relate to the study. Temporal abundance pattern has to do with quantity over a period of time and spatial abundance patterns have to do with quantity over a particular area of space. -Sindy

Focal species are species that are extremely sensitive to the changes in an environment. -Sindy

Temporal monitoring is monitoring that is conducted over time. -Sindy

A marine reserve is an area of the ocean that is protected and allows for the recovery of marine life and the expansion of it as well. -Sindy

Side-fidelity, also known as philanthropy, is the likelihood of a particular organism to stay in a set habitat, or to return to it. There are many reasons to this, such as breeding and food abundance. -Sindy

Parapatric distribution refers to a distributional pattern where pairs of taxa are partially overlapping or have separate but adjacent distributions, typically along common boundaries.

-Angela Mujica

The Protium subserratum Engl. is the name of a species that has distinct defense mechanisms and is in the genus Protium, which are flowering plants in the family Burseraceae.

-Angela Mujica

summarize or state the main point again

family of kinases that regulate the cell cycle through the transfer of phosphate groups

tumors that arise from early forms of nerve cells in an embryo/fetus

tumors that arise from cells that make up supportive tissue in the brain

a stem cell that has limited cellular divisions and can differentiate into a neuron or glial cell

two or more phenotypic traits are influenced by one gene

in a living organism

happens outside of the normal environment, such as in a test tube or petri dish

inserting RNA or DNA into a cell through a plasmid

abnormal calcium deposits in certain parts of the brain

abnormal development of the outer layer of the cerebrum of the brain

underdevelopment of the brain causing a child’s head to be smaller than normal

the study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena, especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life.

conditions under which an animal lives -RKL

Isothermal Layer Depth YS & WT

Sea Surface Temperature YS & WT

Difference between active metabolic rate (AMR) and standard metabolic rate (SMR)

Information relative to the space and time of the tagged fish. --MSars

Until now or until the point in time under discussion -M.A.S.

Visceral= in the organs. -M.A.S

The quality or state of being diverse in character or content RS

Peritoneal- The area that contains the abdominal organs. The sentence references the peritoneal temperature, so that is the temperature in the abdominal region.

• D.N.B.

authorization for feeding -M.A.S

Internal organs within the main cavities of the body RS

Stands for "boundary element model", which is used to model electric field structure based on the electric organ and to deduce electric field source poles from an electric field.

" the ability to detect weak naturally occurring electrostatic fields in the environment. Electroreception is found in a number of vertebrate species, including the members of... of teleosts (a group of ray-finned fishes) and...Electroreception facilitates the detection of prey or other food sources and objects and is used by some species as a means of social communication." (Hopkins,2017)

-This excerpt provides a brief synopsis of what electroreception is and explains its relevance to the experiment discussed in this article.

https://www.britannica.com/science/electroreception

An extremely large and diverse group of fish that are mainly identified by the presence of a homocercal tail;in which the upper and lower parts of the tail are equal in size. An example of a teleost fish would be a tuna or hailbut.

-Kierra Hobdy

https://www.britannica.com/animal/teleost

A predator that is able to use to receptors in their electric organs to sense the environment around them . The electrorecptors in the organism are located in a dilated part of a canal or duct . -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

The spread of the signals that are emitted by the electric organs within the organism -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

The anatomical position that relates to the underside or the abdominal part of an organism -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

A cycle, object or process that has two phases -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

The anatomical term that refers to the area of the body that located near the oral and nasal region . -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

Relationships between the evolutionary history of a group of organisms . "poly" - many "genetic"- origin -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

Resembling an ampulla , An ampulla is a dilated piece of a canal or duct. -Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

This phrase means that the front-facing side of the organism does not have a supply of nerve. "non" - not , "innervated"- to supply with nerves

Michelle Oriana Gomez-Guevara

The pause that occurs in an insect during development. - Nicole Jones

Transformation from juvenile to adult where the adult will have similar hormone levels before and after metamorphosis. - Nicole Jones

able to adapt or be adapted to different functions. In this case, the juvenile hormone is a molecule that adjust to different environments. - Nicole Jones

means to show radiation from somewhere else by allowing the wavelength to become shorter with a x-rays or ultraviolet ways. - Nicole Jones

this a technique used in chemistry. It is important because it allows for a chemical compound to become a similar product of a desired chemical structure. - NAJ

memory formation deficits or ability to retain memories deficit

the role of an organism in the environment

These are permanent bodies of waters found interior to the coastal waters. These bodies include rivers, lakes and resevoirs.

Temperature, volumetric flow and discharge were observed and recorded for a year prior to the experiment.

Environments and ecosystems perturbed due to human interference.

The biological system includes bacteria, fungi and invertebrates. Fungi colonizes the leaves once they fall in the stream and break down the carbon.

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen is the combination of nitrogen forms nitrate, nitrite and ammonium. This is the most available form of nitrogen used by algae.

SRP is a measure of the filterable portion of phosphate known as orthophosphate.

This is a carbon source found on land commonly in biotic organisms.

Particulate organic carbon is a source of carbon to the ocean obtained from living organisms and detritus ; it is larger compared to dissolved organic carbon.

Within an ecosystem, there are external factors which may threaten the balance. Effects on stream ecosystems are heavily influenced by nutrients. Phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon balance is essential to keep the ecosystem consistent. When carbon is released from the streams, it does not easily re-enter and goes into different forms. An excess of nutrients and the lack of standards for these ecosystems may be detrimental. Why is it important to conduct such research? Why is it important to care for and monitor other ecosystems?

Effects of Nutrients on Stream Ecosystems

This is organic carbon that can be dissolved in water and run through a filter; it is smaller compared to particulate organic carbon.

These forests shed annually and litter the streams, giving them an organic carbon source.

Co-limitation is the limiting of growth caused by two factors, both must be present in a set ratio to have an effect.

There is further visualization in figure 2, where the co-limitation of nitrogen and phosphorus are presented.

Sequestration is the collection and storage of carbon dioxide.

In this case, the carbon is being removed from the water and depletes the riverine food webs.

A characteristic that is shared within species but not present within their ancestors.

RA

A flower that contains sex organs of both the male and female. These organs are known as the carpellate (produces ovules) for females and staminate (produces pollen) for males.

RA

A collection of preserved plant specimen used for specific scientific study.

RA

The junction between the leaf and the stem blade.

RA

Is a unit of biological classifications of an organism. This can be a group of rank such as, species, family or class.

RA

The influence of humans in the modification of nature.

RA

The division of large habitats into smaller patches, resulting in discontinuities within the organisms preferred habitat.

This phenomena results in the degradation of an ecosystem.

RA

Genetic variation is the differences in the genetic makeup within populations over time.

RA

In angiosperms, when a plant bares fruit.

RA

In a flowering plant, it is a cluster of flowers either on a main branch or system of branches.

RA

The study of how humans within a cultures use plants as folk remedy.

RA

can spread something harmful (NAJ)

early stage of development (NAJ)

anything having to involve only earth's resources. (NJ)

relating to a round-worm or thread-like worm. (NJ)

Initiation of a group. (NJ)

A copy of a natural system. (NJ)

An organism that spreads diseases. (NJ)

A design of a biological system. (NJ)

An organism that benefits from living from a host which is another organism. (NJ)

Having a common ancestor. (NJ)

proteins that have carbohydrate groups. (NJ)

Reproduction without a male and female. (NJ)

An organism that can make food. (NJ)

An order. In this case, RNA and DNA are aligned to facilitate gene expression. (NJ)

Preserved. (NJ)

All the genes expressed by mRNA. (NJ)

Has evolved in some way. (NJ)

a complete set of genes that carry information in an organism. (NJ)

an animal that does not have a backbone. (NJ)

means a living organism that is multicellular. (NJ)

Phylogeny refers to the study of evolutionary history among groups of organisms or individuals. The phylogenetic tree is a diagram that illustrates the relationships among species; this diagram is based on similarities and differences in the physical or genetic characteristics of different organisms. This diagram shows that all organisms originate from a single ancestor but have diverged due to speciation over a long period of time. (JP)

Speciation is an evolutionary process where populations become distinct from each other over a long period of time and develop into a new species. (JP)

Taxonomy deals with naming and classifying organisms. A taxonomic group of any rank, such as a species, family, or class is a taxa. ~S.Z.

The mutation rate of biomolecules is calculated and used narrow down the time in prehistory when two or more organisms diverged. (SZ)

Taxa refers to taxonomical groups like species, family, or class. Taxa are used in classifying organisms based on relatedness of characteristics.

Sister taxa refers to two groups in which the organisms derived from a common ancestral organism, therefore these two groups are very closely related. (DV)

Divergence is the differentiation of something (like an organism's genetic information) from its common state.

Molecular divergence is the differentiation between the nucleotide sequence in DNA or amino acid sequences in proteins of organisms. (DV)

Transisthmian refers to the opposite sides of an isthmus. The authors utilize this term to portray that the shrimps that were measured were from opposite sides (Pacific side and Caribbean side) of the Isthmus of Panama. ~J.D.A. (DV)

Sporadic production is referring to production that occurs in an irregular manner. the fertile clutches will occur in at an inconsistent interval. ~S.Z.

straightforward, clear. (SZ)

A process by which a species evolves into two or more descendant or different forms (SZ)

Foraminifera are single-celled planktonic animals. They have an external shell and a granular ectoplasm for catching their food. When they die their shell becomes part of seafloor matter. ~J.D.A.

A gene coding for the cytochrome oxidase enzyme. This enzyme is found in the mitochondrial membrane. It is responsible for catalyzing transfer of electrons to the oxygen atom. This is for the electron transport chain to make ATP as a product. ~J.D.A.

Allozyme is an enzyme. They are coded by differ alleles found at the same locus of the gene. They were studied in this experiment via taxonomic branching to map out closely related pairs. ~J.D.A.

This explains the process of gene transfer. Usually this is observed from shifts in genes between different populations. So lets say a blue bird from one population migrates out of its territory and mates with a brown bird from the new population, the allele frequency shifts. ~J.D.A.

Annotation needed

The classic allopatric model is also known as geographic speciation or the dumbbell model. Classic allopatric model is a kind of speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated from each other. This isolation is what will prevent genetic exchange between the separated populations. ~S.Z.

"Intra" means within. Divergence is when something separates. Thus, this word could mean how species diverge from each other from within the same oceanic community. ~J.D.A.

Strombinid refers to the taxa Strombidae. It's a family of medium-sized conch sea snails. Gastropods is also another term used to describe the Mollusca phylum. ~J.D.A.

The word shoal describes a shallow body of water. This is synonymous to sandbars or elevated sand in beaches. Therefore, something that "shoals" means that it doesn't have much depth. ~J.D.A.

Concordant means to agree. A variation of this word would be "concor", which has the same meaning. For this paper, the word may be used to describe how data collected seem to show the same variation or consistency. ~J.D.A.

Tenable is defined as something that can be "holdable". It could mean that something must have enough support for it to be upheld. In other words, if someone has an argument against an idea, the explanation should be enough to defend the concept. ~J.D.A.

Staggered suggests that the occurrence or arrangement of events did not happen at the same time. Staggered isolation is the thought of organisms become genetically isolated at different events or moments in time, therefore leading to speciation of these organisms. (DV)

Parsimony analysis deals with simplicity. In regards to science, there will be various explanations to certain phenomenon. According to parsimony analysis, the simplest explanation is the best one. ~J.D.A.

Conspecific is also like heterospecific as it pertains to classifying species. In the sentence it seems to be an opposing word to heterospecific. If heterospecific means organisms of differ species, then conspecfics must mean the opposite--must mean organisms of same species. ~J.D.A.

Heterospecific is used to classify organisms. "Hetero" means differ, and "specific" pertains to a particular subject/concept. Heterospecific means organisms that aren't the same species. ~J.D.A.

Isthmus is a stretch of narrow land that connects two large landmasses and separates two bodies of water.

The Isthmus of Panama formed 3 million years ago connecting North America and South America, while separating the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean. (DV)

The snapping shrimp (Alpheus) is a species of shrimp well known for their asymmetrical claws which when closed produce a loud snapping noise. They borrow in the sand and attack their prey by quickly reaching out with their larger claw to capture it. (DV)

A fish that swims with moderate drag and maximized thrust. These fishes are evasive and have prey locally available near them, unlike cruising specialists. Some acceleration specialists are barracudas, flounders, and pike.

The length a fish swims with one tail beat (one stride). In humans, this would be the amount of distance a person walks with one step they make. Larger fish have larger stride lengths.

Hypermorphic

Hypermorphic refers to mutations in the gene that result in an increase of gene expression. Therefore, hypermorphic alleles result in hyper-pigmentation as described in the paper.

(ABE)

Prostaglandin

Prostaglandin are a group of fatty acids that act as hormones in the body. For example, during pregnancy the contractions are stimulated by a prostaglandin.

(ABE)

Hypoxic

Hypoxia refers to the condition in the body where there is a deprivation of oxygen to the tissues.

(ABE)

Heterotypic

Heterotypic refers things that are different in form or type. So, heterotypic cell to cell adhesion is adhesion between two different types of cells.

(ABE)

Catenin

Catenin is a type of protein in the human body that is in charge of regulation and coordination of cell to cell adhesion.

(ABE)

Synergistic effects

Synergistic effects refers to an effect where the combination of both is greater than the sum of the individual parts. So the whole is greater than its individual parts.

(ABE)

Irradiation

Irradiation refers to treating something with radiation, in this case UV light.

(ABE)

Aberrant

Aberrant refers to something that differs from the accepted standard, so it could be something that is abnormal. For example aberrant Edn3 expression is that expression which differs from the norm.

(ABE)

Melanomagenesis

Melanomagenesis efers to the development of melanoma through the multi step process of genetic mutations.

(ABE)

Epigenetic

Epigenetics relates to non genetic influences on gene expression, so the way our genes are expressed can be affected by factors not encoded in the gene. For example DNA methylation is an epigenetic change that affects gene expression.

(ABE)

Co-cultured

Co-cultured refers in this case to culturing two different types of cells together. For example, the null NC cells were cultured together with the wild typeneural tube explants. This would be co-culturing.

(ABE)

Non-cutaneous

Cutaneous refers to something in the body relating to the skin. Therefore, non-cutaneous refers to something that does not have something to do with the skin. For example non-cutaneous melanocytes would be those that grow in areas not relating the the skin.

(ABE)

Melanoblasts

Melanoblasts are precursors to melanocytes. So, they are the cells that come before the melanocytes.

(ABE)

Induces

Induce refers to the production or promoting of something. So if the Edn3 induces proliferation, it brings about proliferation.

(ABE)

Sciatic nerve

The sciatic nerve is a long nerve in the body that runs from the bottom of the spine to the back of the leg and above the knee joint.

(ABE)

Transdifferentiate

Transdifferentiation is when a cell, other than a stem cell, differentiates into a different type of cell

(ABE)

Contact Inhibition

Contact inhibition is a process in the body that regulates cell growth. For example, when the cells come in contact with each other, its a sign that its time to stop growing, hence the name contact inhibition.

(ABE)

in vitro

in vitro refers to a study that took place outside of the living organism, so in a test tube or culture dish, etc. The opposite would be an in vivo experiment that takes pace inside the organism.

(ABE)

Dorsolateral

A dorsolateral pathway is one that is on the dorsal and lateral surfaces. Lateral refers to something away from the mid line of the body and dorsal refers to the upper back of an animal.

(ABE)

Chemotactic

A chemotactic response is a response to a chemical stimulus that results in the movement of the body.

(ABE)

Endogenous

Endogenous refers to something that originates from within an organism, or something that has an internal cause or origin. A promoter that is endogenous originates from within.

(ABE)

Aganglionosis

Aganglionosis is characteristic in megacolon and it means that there are no ganglia present. Ganglia, or ganglion cells, are a type of nerve cell responsible for moving food in the colon. As a result, their absence can lead to constipation.

(ABE)

Megacolon

Megacolon is an abnormal dilation of the colon. So, the colon widens and oftentimes the movement of the bowels can stop.

(ABE)

Melanogenic

Melanin is the skin-darkening pigment produced in melanocytes. Therefore, melanogenic refers to a melanocytes ability to produce melanin. If a substance is melanogenic it stimulates a cell to produce melanin.

(ABE)

Mitogenic

Mitogenic refers to stimulating a cell to start dividing through mitosis. For example, a mitogen is a chemical that stimulates division in a cell, so it has mitogenic properties.

(ABE)

Kinases

A kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a desired molecule. For example, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase is in charge of transferring a phosphate group from ATP to tyrosine in proteins. Tyrosine is one of the 20 amino acids found in proteins.

(ABE)

Adenyl cyclase

An enzyme that is in charge of catalyzing the formation of cyclic AMP into ATP. To catalyze means to increase the rate of the reaction, so this enzymes speeds up the rate at which ATP is produced from cyclic AMP. ATP is the energy molecule of the body.

(ABE)

Phospholipase

Phospholipase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes, or breaks down, phospholipids into fatty acids. There are four types of these enzymes: A, B, C, and D.

(ABE)

Cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocytes are cardiac muscle cells.For example, the heart is made up of cardiac muscle, and thus these cells.

(ABE)

Heterotrimetic

Refers to a macromolecule that is made up of at least three subunits where one of the subunits of the molecule differs from the other two. A G-Protein is an example, because it is made up of an alpha, beta, and gamma subunits.

(ABE)

G-Protein Coupled Receptors

G-Protein Coupled Receptors are located in the cell membrane of eukaryotes. Their function is to receive signals from the outside, that will then produce a cellular response. There are many different types of these receptors talked about in the paper.

(ABE)

Paracrine Factors

Paracrine Factors are produced by certain cells in order to communicate with adjacent cells around them. They are a form of signaling between cells to alter the behavior of cells around them.

(ABE)

Antagonist

A receptor antagonist functions by blocking a biological response by binding to the receptor that would have previously stimulated this response. For example, for the endothilin receptor type b (Ednrb) discussed in this paper, an antagonist would bind to it and block the response that would have been produced originally. So they function as biological blockers.

(ABE)

Metastases

Metastases refers to when a malignant tumor grows at a site away from the original site. For example, if you say that lung cancer metastasized to the liver it means that the lung cancer is now also found in the liver. It developed at a site away from the original, in this case from the lungs to the liver.

(ABE)

Differentiation

In cells, differentiation refers to a cell that is less specialized becoming more specialized. This occurs during development, so a melanocyte differentiation is when developing cells specialize into melanocytes.

(ABE)

Precursor

A precursor is something that happens before something else. So in terms of biology it refers to a cell or tissue that will give rise to another cell or tissue that is more specialized, or mature. In this paper, a melanocyte precursor are cells that came before and will differentiate into melanocytes.

(ABE)

Neural Crest (NC)

The neural crest is an embryonic structure in vertebrates that gives rise to many types of cells, primarily cells of the peripheral nervous system. So during embryonic development, the neural crest differentiates and migrates to give rise to specialized cell types. They also give rise to melanocytes which will be further discussed in the paper.

(ABE)

Endothelin (Edn)

Endothelin is a vasoconstrictive peptide produced in endothelial cells. Vasoconstriction means that these peptides constrict blood vessels, increasing blood pressure as a result. These peptides are composed of 21 amino acids and three are three types: endothelin 1, endothelin 2, and endothelin 3.

(ABE)

The system that clears waste from the brain.

Small molecular weight tracers are small, and can therefore diffuse easily.

The tracer used here, FITC, is only 30% smaller than the protein the scientists later examine, beta amyloid.

FITC's ability to diffuse and penetrate into the interstitial space should, therefore, be similar to beta amyloid, making this a powerful experiment.

The tracer will travel through the brain just as beta amyloid would.

The decrease of heart rate while the fish dive to deep waters. WT & YS

A technique used to determine which proteins are present in a sample.

Genetic changes that do not involve a change in DNA sequence and involve external or environmental factors.

A genetic disease in which tumors develop on nerve tissue (including the brain, spinal cord, and nerves).

Substances that naturally occur in a cell.

The process of genetic material being incorporated into a cell through the use of a virus.

Lentiviruses are a group of viruses that incorporate their own RNA into the DNA of the host cell they infect. They can infect both dividing and nondividing cells.

Modified lentiviruses that carry experimental RNA molecules are called "lentiviral vectors." Researchers can use them to insert, modify, or delete genetic material in an organism.

Short DNA or RNA molecules that form a chain of approximately 20 nucleotides.

A synthetic RNA that guides Cas9 to a specific spot on a DNA molecule.

A process that uses RNA molecules to inhibit genes, usually by destroying specific messenger RNA.

A type of drug used to treat cancers. These drugs help regulate genes that are disrupted by cancer.

A cancer in the pigment-producing cells of the skin.

Compilation of DNA fragments which can be used to determine which genes in a genome to alter and knock out.

Investigate.

A technique that allows for targeted changes in the genome by cutting, replacing, and adding gene sequences.

Tonic immobility is a state of paralysis that occurs in animals. They become immobile and appear dead. In sharks, tonic immobility may be achievable by flipping the sharks onto their back.

Spearman's rank correlation is a nonparametric measure of rank correlation. This measure whether data sets are linear or not linear by assuming that the data set does not follow a normal distribution. A higher r value signifies more linearity. This measure demonstrates a relationship between two variables. (JP)

The molecular clock is a hypothesis that states that DNA and protein sequences evolve at the same rate over time across different organisms. The molecular clock uses the mutation rate of biomolecules to estimate the time in prehistory when two or more life forms diverge. By using the molecular clock model, researchers are able to determine when an organism diverged from its ancestor. (JP)

These are two methods the scientists used to ensure the mice were awake or sleeping.

Electrocorticography measures brain activity

Electromyography measures muscle activity

If both were high, the mouse was considered awake

If both were low, the mouse was considered sleeping

"in vivo" is Latin for "within the living."

Here, it indicates that the experiment was done in a living mouse.

It has always been challenging to perform experiments on living animals; there are many technological, practical, and ethical concerns which generally limit the precision with which experiments can be conducted.

For example, in order to see beyond the surface of mouse's brain, we have always needed to cut the brain into thin sections, and therefore need to euthanize the mouse.

With the invention of two-photon imaging, it became possible to image noninvasively (without the need to euthanize) deep into a mouse's brain, unlocking powerful experiments such as those performed in this paper.

This is the convective exchange described in the abstract.

Convective exchange of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) with interstitial fluid (ISF) is the basic mechanism by which the glymphatic system clears metabolites from the interstitial fluid.

ISF enters the brain along arteries, and flows into the interstitial space, replenishing CSF.

CSF flows into interstitial vessels along veins, carrying waste metabolites and proteins with it.

These two processes create net flows of CSF — in essence, small rivers of CSF flow, beginning with an ISF-to-CSF exchange near arteries, and ending with a CSF to ISF exchange near veins.

The combination of these rivers and the exchanges are called convective exchange.

Peripheral tissue refers to the entire body outside of the brain.

The body has the highly specialized lymphatic system for transporting interstitial metabolites (waste) and proteins to the liver.

The brain uses a different mechanism, recently discovered and dubbed the "glymphatic system." The glymphatic system is basically a cleaning system for the brain.

space between individual brain cells

Additional proteins involved in neurodegenerative diseases.

Beta amyloid (Aβ) is a small protein involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Large clumps of Aβ protein (called plaques) are very prevalent in Alzheimer's disease, and are thus the focus of an enormous amount of research.

It remains unclear what, if any, the causal connection is between Aβ and Alzheimer's disease, but clinical trials are under way to attempt to treat Alzheimer's disease by directly targeting Aβ plaques.

Neurodegenerative disease refers to several different diseases that impact the brain. Examples of neurodegenerative diseases include:

• Parkinson’s
• Alzheimer’s
• Huntington’s disease.

In all neurodegenerative diseases, there is a progressive degeneration and/or death of brain cells.

Beta amyloid (Aβ) is a small protein involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Large clumps of Aβ protein (called plaques) are very prevalent in Alzheimer's disease, and are thus the focus of an enormous amount of research.

It remains unclear what, if any, the causal connection is between Aβ and Alzheimer's disease, but clinical trials are under way to attempt to treat Alzheimer's disease by directly targeting Aβ plaques.

Interstitial fluid (ISF) is the fluid responsible for carrying waste and proteins out of the CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) and away from the brain.

ISF flows in vessels surrounding arteries and veins, transporting waste away from the interstitial space (space between individual brain cells) for degradation.

ISF is continually exchanged for CSF near arteries and then replenished by CSF removal near veins, establishing a flow throughout the brain.

Cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, is the fluid which circulates through the brain and spine.

It is the extracellular solution (fluid) surrounding all neurons in the central nervous system (brain and spine), so its composition must be carefully controlled to maintain proper function of neurons and brain cells.

Convective exchange of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) with interstitial fluid (ISF) is the basic mechanism by which the glymphatic system clears metabolites from the interstitial fluid.

ISF enters the brain along arteries, and flows into the interstitial space, replenishing CSF.

CSF flows into interstitial vessels along veins, carrying waste metabolites and proteins with it.

These two processes create net flows of CSF — in essence, small rivers of CSF flow, beginning with an ISF-to-CSF exchange near arteries, and ending with a CSF to ISF exchange near veins.

The combination of these rivers and the exchanges are called convective exchange.

Interstitial space in this paper refers to the space surrounding cells in the brain, and the space between the brain and the thin layers (meninges) which surround it.

Damaged proteins and metabolic waste may be secreted into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), where they accumulate in the interstitial space.

These waste products are meant to be cleared, or removed, by fluid exchange through the glymphatic system.

A larger interstitial space would be expected to clear waste products faster, since there would be less resistance to diffusion and fluid motion.

Diffusion is the random movement of particles, which, on average, causes high-density pockets of particles to spread out into areas of lower density.

The final concentration of the particles after diffusion depends on the size of the container in which they diffuse: Cut an onion in a small kitchen and the fumes may be felt by everyone, but cut it in a sports arena and nobody will notice as the odor diffuses harmlessly.

In this paper, the authors inject small amounts of a substance, tetramethylammonium (TMA), into the interstitial space.

By measuring the concentration of TMA after diffusion, they can estimate the volume of the space in which the TMA is diffusing.

Metabolic processes like the production and use of energy, protein creation, and degradation, etc., all involve the generation of by-products, some of which can be harmful.

Metabolic homeostasis refers to the active process of maintaining proper, nonharmful levels of molecules produced during cell metabolism.

Disorders caused by a single gene.

Deletions in which the genetic information is missing on both chromosomes.

Observe this Protium, a species of flowering plants [(https://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/imagedatabase/large1/cat_single1-3438.htm)

-Luisa Bermeo