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Col-laborativeculturesmayneedadministrativesupportandleadershipto helpthemgrowandto facilitatetheirdevelopment,buttheirevolu-tion~dependingasit doesonvulnerablehumanqualitiesliketrustandsharing-willinevitablybeslow

Smyth& Garman(1989)desoribeevariouswaysin whicha veneerof voluntarismoftendisguiseswhatamountstoclandestinecompulsionthroughcareerbribery,impliedsupervisorypressure,threatsofevaluation,andthelike.

"Eyenpeercoaching.. ." -theveryphrasesuggestsa qualityof innoCiUOU1;nC:l15andbenevo-lencein peercoachingwhichis so self-evidentthatresistanceto it couldnotpossiblybeinter-pretedasanythingotherthanevidenceofper-sonalweaknessandvulnerabilityamongindi-vidualteachers.

In thisview,technicalcoachingandsimilarpro-fessionaldevelopmentstrategiesreducedques-tionsaboutends,goals,andvaluesin teachingtoquestionsof means,techniques,andproced-ures

Evenso,it seemsto us thatthetimeimplicationsof implementingpeercoachingarebeingtreateda littledisrnis-sivelyhere.

Itschiefpurposeisto helpteacherstransferspecifickindsof train-ingto theirclassroompractice,whilealsode-velopingmechanismsforprofessionaldialogueandcollegialrelationshipsin theirschools.

Coachingis,therefore,a viralpartof inser-vicetrainingthatenablesteachersto makesub-stantialchangesintheirpractice

Garmston(1987)hashelpfullyidentifiedanddefinedthreedifferentforms:technicalcoaching,collegialcoaching,andchal-lengecoaching.

It hasassociatedcollaborativeprofessionalde-velopmentnotwiththeuncriticaladoptionof"proven"technicalproceduresofeffectiveteachingintroducedfromelsewhere,butwithapracticallyguidedyetthoughtfulprocessof im-provementamongcommunitiesof professionalcolleagues

Theylendsupportfora shiftawayfromuniversity-orcollege-basedcoursestargettedattheindividualteacher,andintendedto raisehisor herlevelofintellectualawarenessandabilityto reflect,tomoreschool-centredformsofprofessionaldevelopmentwhichrecognize,bringtogether,andbuildupontheskills,experience,andin-sightsthatteachersalreadyhave.

esearchershavefounda consistencyandcoherencein teachers'knowledgewhichis wellsuitedtoprovidinggroundsforwiseactioninthebusy,rapidlychangingenvironmentof theclassroom

It helpsexplainwhymostadministrativelysup-portedinitiativesincollaborativeteacherde-velopmenttaketheformnQ.t of extendedcriti-calreflectionor of actionresearch,forinstance,butof collectiveexposureto ant:;(Cternallyde-signedprocessof instructionaltrainingin pur-portedlynewteachingstrategies

It helpsexplainthepecu-liarparadoxthatteachersareapparentlybeingurgedto collaboratemore,justat themomentwhenthereis lessforthemto collaborateabout.

Class-roomisdlationhasbeenheldresponsibleforteachers'anxietyabouttheireffectiveness,theirfearfulnessof externalevaluationandtheirirn-mersionintheimmediacyoftheirownclass-rooms.

In fact, Bourdieu argues that the school reenforces the dominant culture in society, that is, the culture of the dominant—economic—class. This puts students from the dominant class in an advantageous position. By virtue of the acquired cultural capital in the family, the embodied cultural capital, these students possess the capital that makes them more likely to succeed in their academic career

Table 2. Statements per cluster at the level of seven core clusters.

In other words, we need to bridge the gap between networked learning and the recognition, valuation and rewarding of it by managers of learners, for instance teachers (in the case of students) or line managers (in the case of organizational learning).

Four main types of activities are distinguished to describe how we learn at the workplace (Eraut, 2004): (1) participation in group activities, (2) working alongside others, (3) tackling challenging tasks, and (4) working with clients.

Nevertheless, unlike formal learning, informal learning is not rewarded nor recognised, mainly due to lacking information about how individuals learn through their network (networked learning)

Further, conditions are created (in consultation with the principal) to support professional development (for example, teachers are given enough time to participate in the training activities). Support for this point is also found by Borman et al. (2000). They stated that ‘successful schools are provided sufficient resources to implement reforms and to provide quality learning environments’ (p. 67).

Both cyclic processes can influence and even steer each other. For example, after the facilitator has observed all the teachers, he or she can plan an evaluation and monitoring conference in which the results of the observations are discussed with the team.

presentation of theory, demonstration of skills, practice in a secure environment, pre-conference, observation and post-conference

Glickman (1990) distinguishes three coaching strategies: directive, collaborative and non-directive.

The facilitators have to ask a lot of questions during the conferences in order to stimulate reflective teaching.

These models are strongly focused on the individual teacher, and neither teaching teams nor the school context are taken into account.

Secondly, a stronger emphasis is needed on monitoring the results of the staff development process.

two distinct classes: those that focus on teaching techniques and those that take a developmental-reflective approach.

Despite this success, no results were found on student level, due to the fact that the goals of the professional development of the teacher’s were open to individual choice and mostly not explicitly linked to goals on student level.

The teacher is the key figure when it comes to influencing student performance and therefore teacher professional development programmes should focus on improving teaching quality.

A clear link between self-regulated learning behaviours and learning success in online environments is established focusing on self-efficacy, interactions with others, and strategies for regulation

Professional expertise has four basic components (Tynjälä & Gijbels, 2012): factual knowledge which is based around conceptual or theoretical knowledge often codified in books, reports and other media sources; experiential knowledge which is difficult to codify and is often acquired through professional practice; self-regulative knowledge, focused on metacognition and ‘knowing oneself’; and sociocultural knowledge, which is embedded in the social practices of groups and communities, providing a framework for interactions

Learning for work often blends deliberate, formalised learning with reactive, non-formal learning

Conventional forms of professional training are losing currency, particularly where they do not address critical dimensions of professional learning important for the contemporary workplace

allowing each individual to tailor specific learning needs to their work demands.

Analysis of the data found that teachers rely toa greater degree on interactive rather than independent informal learning activities.

a lack of time(M¼3:2, SD¼0:67) and a lack of proximity to colleagues’ work areas

These enhancedunderstandings can be used to reconsider the design of work environments so that theyare more conducive to informal learning as well as to rethink the design of professionaldevelopment programs so that they further develop the ability of professionals to solveproblems and learn independently

Empirical studies have been conducted to examine some aspects of these models.For example, Kwakman (2003) investigated factors affecting engagement in informallearning activities in a survey of 542 secondary teachers in The Netherlands. Surveyfindings revealed that four personal characteristics (professional attitudes, appraisalsof feasibility of learning activities, appraisals of the meaningfulness of learningactivities, loss of personal accomplishment), two task factors (work pressure and jobvariety) and two work environment factors (collegial support and intentional learningsupport) influenced participation in workplace learning activities, with the personalcharacteristics appearing to influence participation more substantially than either thetask or work environment factors.

Informal learning refers to activities initiated by people in work settings that result inthe development of their professional knowledge and skills (

Further, teachers with high work engagement—but not teachers with service or management responsibilities—used more informal learning opportunities.

The finding that teachers collaborate more at the beginning of their career than in the middle or at the end may be attributable to younger teachers still being more eager to learn from and draw on the professional expertise of more experienced teachers

In other words, teacher collaboration follows a linear pattern, with older teachers collaborating less frequently than younger teachers

More specifically, teachers aged 27 participated on average in 2.89 in-service courses in the 2-year period surveyed. The average participation rate increased to 3.72 courses at age 42 before decreasing again to 1.58 courses at age 65

In terms of content, this group of teachers participated most intensively in activities relating to their teaching subject, content and performance standards and teaching methods.

The fourth phase covers years 19 and 30 of the career and again has two possible orientations: (1) “serenity” or (2) “conservatism”. Serene teachers experience a loss of engagement, a decline in career ambitions, but also greater sense of self-acceptance, whereas conservative teachers are sceptical towards educational innovations and critical of educational policy

(1) “experimentation and activism” or (2) “reassessment and self-doubts”.

In other words, many beginning teachers participated in informal activities while continuing their formal training. In terms of the content of the activities pursued, beginning teachers attended more activities targeting classroom management and student discipline than did experienced teachers (more than 3 years of experience). Beginning teachers thus chose to attend activities dealing with topics that are particularly challenging for those new to the profession

Rather, they organise the learning process and determine their learning goals and strategies independently

They include individual activities such as reading books and classroom observations as well as collaborative activities such as conversations with colleagues and parents, mentoring activities, teacher networks and study groups

The training model assumes that teachers update their knowledge and skills by means of workshops and courses.

We define professional development as uptake of formal and informal learning opportunities that deepen and extend teachers’ professional competence, including knowledge, beliefs, motivation and self-regulatory skills

Although the empirical basis is rather weak, findings indicate that beginning teachers tend to use observations and informal discussions with colleagues to improve their practice, whereas more experienced teachers are more inclined to use formal meetings for their professional learning

“strong professional development opportunities must be embedded in the very fabric of public education” (p. 129)

In this leading from the middle approach, districts don't just mediate and manage other people's reforms individually; they become the collective drivers of change and improvement together.

In an age of innovation and diversity, top-down strategies are inappropriate, while bottom-up strategies seem unable to achieve improvement on any significant scale.

Their focus on micromanaging two or three measurable priorities only works for systems pursuing traditional and comparatively narrow achievement goals. A digital age of complex skills, cultural diversity, and high-speed change calls for more challenging educational goals and more sophisticated and flexible change strategies.

The findings of this study suggest the importance of transforming the cultural norms for teachers in the U.S. Such transformation may be possible through processes and practices that replace the culture of privacy with a culture of transparency.

In addition, Phil did not wish to disrupt his relationship with his peers, and had worked to build rapport with them by complimenting their work

Phil and Audrey sought the principalship in order to secure the authority they thought necessary to influence teaching practice in their buildings. However, Pauline and Allison retained their faith that authority is not necessary for teachers to have influence in their schools. They focused their attention on developing positive relationships with their colleagues in order to grow mutual trust and respect.

In other words, teachers mutually uphold an expectation that they will not interfere with each other’s work as it relates to teaching and learning within their individual classrooms.

In other words, teachers’ “income goes up primarily as one acquires seniority and takes courses” (Lortie, 1975/2002, p. 102). Therefore, if teachers are compensated financially in any way for additional leadership work, their colleagues are more likely to resist their effortsbecause such work does not follow these traditional reward distribution structures.

Additionally, Lortie (1975/2002) found that while most teachers believe it is acceptable for individual teachers to seek external rewards when they are working in solidarity with a teachers’ union, they do not accept such behavior when individual teachers seek their own rewards independent of collective action.

Thus, the norm of egalitarianism implies that teachers should focus on doing their own work, and not interfere with other teachers’ work unless they are asked specifically for assistance

Some of the research on teacher leadership suggests that the norms of the teaching profession in the U.S. may limit the work of teacher leaders,

Thus, as principals are prepared, they need to expe-rience a re-culturing concerning the need for teacher leadership, the goals of teacher leader-ship, and the definitions of teacher leadership

Phil felt that an administrative position would give him greater authority to challenge his col-leagues while as a teacher leader, he was not as confident to confront colleagues about criti-cal issues.

he worried that tak-ing the initiative might disrupt relationships be-tween him and those colleagues with whom he worked most closely.

In their case studies, the au-thors found that teacher leaders worked against the traditional concept of leadership embed-ded in position, leading in ways that were neither authoritarian nor domineering. They avoided oppressive behaviors connected to hi-erarchical conceptions of leadership by hum-bling themselves, maintaining equity among colleagues, and empowering other teachers to find their own solutions to problems

Teacher leader effectiveness

As leadership becomes dis-tributed across the school, larger numbers of teachers engage in leadership practice, and pro-fessional learning communities are established, whereby teachers influence each other’s prac-tice

power and authority are more even-ly spread across the school.

How have teachers’ experiences with teacher leader-ship and understandings of teacher leadership as a critical practice (constructed through their coursework) influenced their approach to lead-ership and career objectives?

An elementary teacher described that teacher leaders ‘seem to have a false sense of power’ and that she ‘feels talked down to’ by the teacher leaders at her school.

However, mentor teachers were valued more than master teachers because teachers viewed them as more supportive and because they still have teaching responsibilities.

they would like input into how many times they are observed and the length of the window of time that unannounced observations may take place.

‘[Teachers] are really hard on themselves if they only get 3s, except that is proficient, and I wish they realised how good that is.’

Kiranh (2013) found that teachers had a higher expectation of teacher leaders than they did of principals; yet their perception of feedback given to them by teacher leaders was lower than their perception of feedback they received from principals.

he title caused the teacher leaders to focus more on improvement of the school and of the profession compared to other teachers

multiple planned and unplanned observations conducted by the principal and assistant principal(s)

PD groups focus on coaching and classroom support to improve individual teachers’ instruction through professional development that is individualised and relevant

Teachers learn how to connect their performance to student outcomes during weekly meetings

mplementation of the action plan can be like conducting an experiment in which you testyour theories of how instructional strategies lead to student learning

you need to figure out how you will measure its success.

ow the challenge is to develop a shared understanding of what effective instruction around this issue would look like.

Schools can then “triangulate” their findings by using multiple data sources to illuminate, confirm, or dispute their initial hypotheses.

As a school leader, you can then engage your teachers and administrators in constructive conversations about what they seein the data overview.

To interpret score reports, it helps tounderstand the different types of assessments and the various scales that are used

Set Up a Data System

Prepare, Inquire, and Act

We have found that organizing thework of instructional improvement around a process that has specific, manageable steps helps educators build confidence and skill inusing data.

School leaders and policymakers must look carefully at the roles available to teacher leaders, recognizing the value in leading on ideas that emerge from others or from groups with which those leaders are involved.

As schools nationwide respond to increasingly complex CCSS requirements, such as tailoring general reading comprehension strategies to better fit disciplinary-specific reading, writing, and communication stan­dards, collaborative models for professional learning, and particularly mod­els led by teacher leaders, may become increasingly necessary

the roles played by teacher leaders are becoming more vital for supporting these types of models, ultimately facilitating systematic changes in school culture and teachers’ practice

In fact, PLC structures, perhaps due to their recent hurried and often mandatory implementation in many districts across the country, often fail to live up to the ideals behind the model

He went on to explain that this mix of participation and leadership meant that team members could literally “see” her involvement in the work, which bolstered their interest and commitment.

structures she provided, such as clear agendas, detailed fol­low-up notes, and what one teacher described as a running “to-do list” for the group, helped her team members to stay deeply and intently engaged on their chosen focus for inquiry, and the result was what she described as “massive momentum [for] our group

mportant balance between structure and inquiry and the vital role that structure plays in allowing the inquiry at the heart of PLCs to play out

Ultimately, team leaders’ focus on and commitment to the structure of PLCs and the content of the inquiry cycles was crucial as they planned and led focused meetings.

The structure of PLCs, alone, may not have produced the new learning and the ultimate benefits to teachers’ practice described above.

Teachers require guid­ance as they learn to move from what Nelson, Deuel, Slavit, and Kennedy(2010) term “congenial conversations”—which focus on safety, privacy, and preserving the status quo, to “collegial conversations,” which focus on digging into practice, wrestling with disagreements, and building new knowledge and practice together (

However, even with a leader present, teachers do not always know how to collaborate effectively, nor is it always clear what they might discuss (

The structure provided by PLCs may allow teacher leaders to realize their full potential as they facilitate colleagues’ growth, without encountering some of the hindrances that can come with more informal leadership

The current study adds to this body of research by discussing specific ways teachers work with teacher leaders and how these teachers perceive the teacher leaders’ work as shap­ing their practice

Individuals often definetheir affiliations in terms of some subgroup and have weaker ties to the larger organization

because of the class and race differences between school professionals and parents inmost urban areas, conditions can be ripe for misunderstanding and distrust

where necessary, counseling out those whose practiceremains inconsistent with the school's mission and values.

Even simple interactions, if successful, can enhance collectivecapacities for more complex subsequent actions

On average, these improving schools recorded increases in student learning of8 percent in reading and 20 percent in mathematics in a five-year period

In schools in which relational trustwas improving over time

elational trust fosters the necessary social exchanges amongschool professionals as they learn from one another. Talking honestly with colleagues aboutwhat's working and what's not means exposing your own ignorance and making yourselfvulnerable.

Collective decision making withbroad teacher buy-in, a crucial ingredient for reform, occurs more readily in schools with strongrelational trust

they are constantlydiscerning the intentions embedded in the actions of others

Such dependencies create a sense of mutual vulnerability for all individualsinvolved.

Each party in a relationship maintains an understanding of his or her role's obligations and holdssome expectations about the obligations of the other parties

social trust among teachers,parents, and school leaders improves much of the routine work of schools and is a key resourcefor reform

By positively engaging their peers, such teachers enact a larger circle ofsupport for achieving the moral purpose of advancing the learning and development ofchildren in their journey to adulthood

Such principals communicated with all teachers intheir schools about expectations of instructional improvement, the roles of teacher-leaders asa resource for improvement, and expectations of teachers interacting in positive ways with theteacher-leaders

principals must intentionally develop trusting relationships with teacher-leaders

Here are some questions to frame initial conversations between teacher-leaders andthose who support their work

Some of the content areas identified assupporting teacher-leaders in their work include: advanced curricular, instructional, andassessment practices; school culture and its implications for professional and organizationalimprovement; adult development; and facilitation, presentation, and coaching skills requiredto facilitate learning and collaboration for individuals as well as with small or large groups

Further, working in authentic instructional situations allows teachers who lead to continuedeveloping their own instructional skills and, by doing so, to remain credible as teachers.

learning by experimenting with newpractices and then observing positive results is the means by which beliefs are changed.

meaning that one does not always knowwhat to do

Teachers who influence othershave the capability to establish high trust relationships with and among their teaching peersand principals

This results inless time for side-by-side work with other teachers, which raises questions about the notionthat teacher leadership is first and foremost about the learning work for instructionalimprovement.

The great potential of leading from the middle comes from remaining connected with teachersand to ground-level practices, while at the same time developing more substantialconnections with school administration and district leaders.

Often, work unseen is work devalued

engagement of teachers (likestudents) requires “consistent positive reinforcers that are meaningful, relevant, rewarding andenjoyable”

solation, egalitarianism, irrelevant andepisodic staff development, and disempowerment continue as norms in many schools

Further, because specific development effortsrarely have been sustained over time, full implementation of new initiatives has rarelyoccurred.

Egalitarian normsexert invisible pressure on teachers to retain equal status and not strive to be above theirteaching colleagues.

most schools continue to struggle both forstructural and psychological reasons to establish such cultures

Not only does isolation diminish professional growth, but prolongedisolation reinforces a solitary orientation to one's work and often breeds defensiveness andfinger pointing.

put a good person in a bad system and thesystem will win every time.” This emphasizes the powerful effect of existing norms, explicit orimplicit, on human behavior.

"Teacher leadership is the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influencetheir colleagues, principals, and other members of school communities to improve teachingand learning practices with the aim of increased student learning and achievement

Organizations, likepeople, that continue to learn are better situated not only to adapt but also to thrive in thecontext of an ever-changing external environment

teachers are key school leaders becausethey are positioned to influence peers through collégial relationships.

Leadership is increasingly understood as a phenomenon shared by manyindividuals within organizations

In the unfolding third wave of teacher leadership, teachers are leaders in creating andsustaining a collaborative culture of learning in the school focused on improving instructionalpractice

A second wave of teacher leadership “... acknowledged the importance of teachers asinstructional leaders and created positions that capitalized on teacher instructionalknowledge”

The essence of teacher leadership in the first wave wasteachers assuming formal positions, such as department chair, site committee member, orunion representative, positions largely focused on increasing the efficiency of schoolmanagement

This is an alternative approach to the common practice of solely designating leadership to experienced, veteran teachers

Converging findings from both qualitative and quantitative results provide robust evidence for the three types of teacher leadership presented in this chapter.

the existing body of research currently does not delineate different types of teacher leadership into an organized framework to guide future research in this emerging area of professional practice

teacher leaders often spoke of challenging the status quo to create channels of communication in a traditionally hier­archical system

decision-making culture that include formal teacher leadership positions

. These roles enabled them to bring the experi­ences and voices of classroom teachers to systems-level decisions.

Furthermore, an incentive for PL teachers’ participation in a professional learning leadership role was the opportunities to learn from other teachers.

Proximity to colleagues has been documented to be critical for de-privatizing teaching and improving student outcomes

he importance of facilitating adult groups to promote ownership of new pedagogies and, in turn, transfer of their learning to practice.

exhibited leadership at the level of school sites (grade-level teams, staff department meetings), districts (district-wide science PD workshops), or beyond (workshops at national conferences)

For the instructional innovators, leadership work that extended outside of the classroom still remained student- and/or instruction-centered, such as participating in the development of standards-aligned curricula.

Instructional innovators challenged the common practice of teaching in isolation by making their teaching public for a wide range of stakeholders

Instructional innovators’ expertise of student learning also supported their ability to efficiently retrieve and apply pedagogical heuristics and principles to meet the diverse learning needs of their students (Peterson & Clark, 1978; Shavelson & Stem, 1981)

m ary of Three Types of Teacher

Although findings showed that each teacher represented primarily one leadership type, in some cases, teachers exhibited characteristics, roles, targets, and/ or means of influence that were associated with another type of leadership.

(1) instructional innovator, (2) professional learning (PL) leader, and (3) administrative teacher leader

Examples of emergent codes include “content expertise,” “novice teachers,” and “reform and policy interest” (component 1; characteristics of leaders); “curriculum work” and “facilitating learning of adult learners” (component 2; leadership work); “systems approach” and “classroom-based leadership” (component 3; means of influence); and “students,” “principals,” and “teacher colleagues” (component 4; targets of influence).

910

empirical evidence regarding the benefits of teacher lead­ership is mixed

A second way that teacher leadership is highlighted is through their role in professional learning contexts, in which they promote ongoing dis­course, collaboration, and accountability among colleagues to improve educational practices (Curtis, 2013; Hart, 1995; Stoll, Bolam, McMahon, Wallace, & Thomas, 2006

Whereas teacher leaders were once identified primarily in formal administrative roles (e.g., department chairs) or as instructional experts (e.g., mentors to new teachers), teacher leaders are now increasingly recognized as engaging in varied leadership roles across the school sys­tem, with the goal of improving instruction and shaping school culture (Curtis, 2013; Patterson & Marshall, 2014; Mangin & Stoelinga, 2008; Silva, Gimbert, & Nolan, 2000

Further, engaging teachers as leaders in and out of the classroom is particularly important given the current context of education reform, including the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and the Next Gen­eration Science Standards (NGSS) (NRC, 2013)