If plurilingualism was coined by the Council of Europe to ensure the political and economic cohesionof the European Union,

This fact can easily transforms these classrooms into monolingual ones whereinstruction is, for all intents and purposes, only in the national language. In fact, plurilingual programsfor refugees are almost non-existent!

It is this Canadian immersion model that has spread today to the so-called English-mediuminstruction (EMI) programs that have proliferated all over the world, especially in Asia. These pro-grams are fueled by the desire to teach English so as to facilitate access to the symbolic goodsthat English supposedly represents (Adamson and Feng 2009; Hu 2007).

As studies of multilingualism emerged in the second half of the twentieth century, the world wasundergoing an important socio-political change – the colonial structures of the European Empiresstarted to be dismantled. The independence movements of Asian and African countries unleasheda sense of ethnic, racial and linguistic pride, as more minoritized groups clamored for greater politicaland economic rights (Fishman 1985). These were often accompanied by demands for a different typeof education, one that respected and leveraged the cultural and linguistic practices of local commu-nities (García and Lin 2017a). And in some contexts, language majorities, threatened by the increasedpower of the speakers of the ‘other’ languages started also clamoring for an education that woulddevelop the bilingualism of their own children. The stage was set for the development of a newtype of bilingual education – immersion programs

e describe how, in the past and continuing today, thetraditional view of multilingualism has impacted the teaching of additional languages in second-and foreign- language programs, as well as in bilingual educatio

Bilingualism; languageeducation; multilingualism;plurilingualism;translanguaging

A comparison of results from facultyinterviews, student questionnaires, and the document analysis wouldbe triangulation by sources and methods.

the lack of relevance that traditionalmaterials for teaching English as a foreign language have for refugees. To solve these issues,teachers will have access to the following resources:1. Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants (LIAM)Toolkit (Council of Europe): Tools andresources designed to assist organizations, and especially volunteers, providing languagesupport for adult refugees.https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-support-for-adult-refugees/home?desktop=true2. Language for Resilience (British Council): Theoretical resources that examine theimpact of language on refugees and host communities, identifying how language skillsenhance resilience and providing suggestions to address key needs.https://www.britishcouncil.org/language-for-resilience3. The English Hub for Refugees: Teaching materials tailored to meet the specificlanguage learning needs and challenges of refugees and asylum seeker

nally, it is important to clarify that this course is specifically designed to support the languageteaching/learning process of refugees and asylum seekers.

in this specific learning context

Finally, it is important to clarify that this course is specifically designed to support the languageteaching/learning process of refugees and asylum seekers.

But because of power differentials built up duringthe processes of nation-building and colonial formation, monolingual white elites and their ways of

In the United States, translanguaging has more ofa social justice focus and is seen as empowering minority students

It also distinguishes pedagogicaltranslanguaging from spontaneous translanguaging and provides a definitionand theoretical principles

It is obvious that extended exposure tothe target language(s) is necessary, but there is also a real need to build on whatstudents already know

hich proposes planned activities involving two or more languagesso that languages reinforce one another and multilingual students make the mostof their linguistic repertoire and their experience as language learners andlanguage users.

Students link newinformation to old information and pedagogical translanguaging aims at reinfor-cing that process. It is also natural for multilingual speakers to use languages ina flexible way and to translanguage spontaneously (García & Li, 2014; Duarte& Kirsch, 2020). Pedagogical translanguaging has as its point of referencemultilingual individuals and multilingual societies because they represent theway people communicate

Languages can reinforce each other and prior linguistic know-ledge is an advantage that can be used in the classroom. Another argument isthat using two or more languages in the same lesson does not imply lessexposure to the target language even if this is a minority language. The timeallocated to activating resources from the majority language in the space of theminority language can easily be compensated for when pedagogical trans-languaging is implemented across the curriculum and the minority language isalso used in the majority-language lessons.

edagogical translanguaging is about activatingmultilingual speakers’ resources so as to expand language and content learning.Multilinguals have broader repertoires than monolinguals, and they are oftenmore experienced language learners

The richtrajectories multilingual students often have are useful resources for learningadditional languages and academic subjects

that each ofthese and other groups needs varies greatly, however, meaning thatlanguage teaching using generic programs and materials, not de-signed with particular groups in mind, will be inefficient

Participant and non-participant observation have theadvantage of allowing direct, in-depth, contextualized study of whatparticipants actually do, of the activities of interest in their naturalenvironment (natural, that is, except for the presence of the outsideobserver in the case of non-participant observation

An audit is useful for providing a quick overview of a situation andidentifying mismatches between perceptions and reality, betweenwhat is going on and what should b

uestionnaires, especially if mailed, group-administered or adminis-tered by third parties, can procure sizeable amounts of focused,standardized, organized data, potentially from a large sample ofrespondents, and do so relatively quickly and cheaply. They canaccomplish all this, moreover, with the option of anonymity (shouldthat be important to respondents) and with less chance of interviewerbias, since the questions asked, the order in which they are asked,and the precise way they are asked can all be carefully planned andfixed. On the other hand, response rates can be low, and the type ofinformation and range of responses obtained are likely to be limitedby the use of pre-determined questions and response options andformats. In a sense, that is, unstructured interviews serve to identifyrelevant questions, whereas questionnaires assume knowledge of theright questions and test hypotheses about answers

The interview is a keydata-gathering tool in many branches of the social sciences, mostnotably in anthropology and linguistics fieldwork.

hey includeboth inductive and deductive procedures (Berwick, 1989). Theformer involve use of expert intuitions, participant and non-participant observation, and unstructured interviews, from whichcategories of needs are derived; the latter include use of devices andinstruments, such as structured interviews, questionnaires, andcriterion-referenced performance tests, with pre-set categories

When different sources and/or methods produce conflicting find-ings, it is important to pursue the matter. Which sources are right, ormore likely to be, and which to be followed when designing aprogram? Are none of them right? Or are all of them right (at leastthose involving different sources)? Assuming one rejects the post-modernist and epistemological relativist view that different views ofreality, including tasks, simply reflect the fact (sic) that all of them are'socially constructed' (in which case, there would be no such thing as'facts', and one would not be bothered by conflicting findings, orindeed by 'findings' at all), this is exactly where triangulation, asopposed to informal cross-checking, can help the needs analyst. So,too, can one or more independent measures of the variable con-cerned, e.g., students' L2 proficiency or a flight attendant's know-ledge and competenc

Not to be confused withany of the above, checking findings from two (or two hundred) moreindividuals of the same type using the same procedure, e.g., thefindings from one faculty interview against those from anotherfaculty interview, simply constitutes what Lincoln & Guba (p. 305)call 'multiple copies' of one type of source, not triangulation ofdifferent sources. Similarly, comparing findings from faculty inter-views with reading requirements listed on course syllabuses writtenby the same faculty members would be a case of comparing differentmethods of accessing the same information from the same source, nottriangulation of sources

There is an urgent need for courses of all kindsto be relevant - and to be seen to be relevant - to the needs of specificgroups of learners and of society at large.

he backgroundknowledge, cultural knowledge, and sociolinguistic and pragmaticskills required are sometimes difficult even for native speakers toacquire, and harder still for the two populations targeted in herstudy: recent immigrants, and workers with an intellectual disability.

destination country prior ttination country or have friincentive to learn

assimilationdegree of return aWestern Europe (Engin the pre-accessionof the implica

xts. The selectivity of migrant groups relative to their origin countrycounterparts as well as compared with other groups may also affect their integrationprocesses (Ichou, 2014), but the implications of such selectivity across economic andcultural domains can only be understood if we know what characteristics, resourcesand orientations they arriv

data - that reveal how integration outcomes differsubstantially between immigrants from different origins across a number of WesternEuropean cou

norities inconcept of multiculturalismlarge flows of migrants fromthe issue of migrant i

The goal of the project was to obtain a more complete picture of integrprocesses in Europe and of the role of individual traits, group characteristics and retion contexts

The recovery framework provides a foundation for government andnon-government organizations seeking to improve the quality of their ser-vices to refugees.

Over the past eighteen years, VFST has provided counsellingand advocacy interventions for individuals, families and groups of refugeesfrom many different countries. It has developed a framework that linkstraumatic events, namely, the experience of violence, systemized persecu-tion and forced displacement to their social and psychological effects.These effects can include anxiety, helplessness, loss of control, isolation,loss of trust, erosion of meaning and identity, guilt and shame

As a new and emerging community, many of the Sudanese are pro-foundly affected by their experiences of war, flight and the hardship ofcamps or other places where they first seek asylum.

Two cultures: one lifeJenny Mitchell, Ida Kaplan and Louise Crowe

participants associatedlearning English with increased autonomy and the development of a renewed socialidentity. A qualitative study by Miller

The impact of English on participants’ lives consisted of moving from dependenceto autonomy, a sense of achievement, and learning English was associatedwith hopes for further changes including in employment and education

Refugees’ psychological problems are better understood in thecontext of the challenges of adaptation to many difficult circumstances than inpsychiatric terms

Many refugees and asylum seekers arrive in the host country having incurredextensive material and social losses (United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees [UNHCR], 2007).

Claude Hagége est convaincu que sans défense de la part des Etats l’an- glais fera disparaitre les langues ethniques. Nicholas Ostler argumente dans The Last Lingua Franca : English until the return of Babel que la domination de l’an- glais finira, comme celle des autres langues globales. C’est la diversité qui est naturelle pour l’histoire et la globalisation est toujours imposée. Elle se produit seulement parce qu’elle promet quelques biens économiques ou culturels. Bientét une langue globale ne sera méme plus nécessaire di aux outils technologiques de la communication. Cela est un peu utopique, mais il y a des prévisions plus réalistes.

La globalisation communi- cationnelle vient donc de deux facteurs : le postcolonialisme et la globalisation réceptive de l’anglais. La domination actuelle de l’anglais est inédite. C’est pour- quoi on parle souvent de la globalisation seulement dans le contexte contem- porain. Pourtant, ces processus existent depuis l’aube de l’humanité.

AU XVII‘ siécle le frangais commence a dominer.

titre de comparaison on peut men- tionner l’Europe médiévale avec ses trois langues de culture : latin, grec et arabe. Le plurilinguisme des élites n’était rien d’extraordinaire. Le statut de Vitalien comme une langue de culture et de la diplomatie a l’époque de la Renaissance constitue le premier exemple de la globalisation purement réceptive. Son succes est dai uniquement a l’influence culturelle de la Renaissance italienne : sa littéra- ture, ses beaux-arts et sa musique.

Au Moyen Age, c’est l’empire arabe

II faut souligner que dans 1’Anti- quité, il y avait aussi des langues globales, car le monde pour l’homme antique a d'autres dimensions que notre monde aujourd’hui. II suffit de regarder la carte de Claude Ptolémée, ot! le monde comprend seulement la région méditerranéenne, l'Inde et la Chine. Pour l’empereur Auguste, le latin était une vraie langue globale qui se répandit a la suite des guerres impliquant la terre entiére.

Et la globalisation réelle ? Son outil, c’est une langue naturelle supra-ethnique et supra-nationale que l’on appelle aussi langue globale, universelle, mondiale, internationale, lingua franca ou interlingua.

Even as the technological changes that accompany and make globalisation possible themselvesmultiply and diversify, and as communication becomes progressively multimodal, the universalisingand homogenising force of absorption into a common underlying ethic and process of signification isobliterating language diversity.

The effect, then, of these forces for change is to make every nation need to come to grips, in publicpolicy and in educational practice, with polyglot populations. Languages serve functions of affect andsolidarity as much as the more obvious communication function.

his situation can be remedied if pedagogical translanguagingis also implemented in the Basque and Spanish classes and students work with thethree languages in the three language classes.

An important benefit of pedagogical translanguaging is that learners can have greateraccess to information when they can use different languages.

The school languages can be national lan-guages which are widely used in the country where the school is located, minority lan-guages which are used in the region where the school is located or other second andforeign languages such as English.

In this article we look at language classes, but pedagogicaltranslanguaging is also relevant for the learning of academic content because contentis learned through the medium of language

Multilingual speakers have a rich repertoire, which can be used as a resource to commu-nicate and to learn additional languages more effectively. It is natural for multilingualspeakers to try to use resources from other languages because they try to link theirprior knowledge to new knowledge. ‘Focus on multilingualism’ also looks at thesocial context of communicative interaction. When multilingual speakers communicate(face-to-face or digitally) they use multilingual resources in their repertoire and translan-guage to a greater or lesser extent depending on the social context.

Pedagogical translanguaging has these characteristics (Cenoz and Gorter,2021):1) It can be applied not only to two languages, as in Wales, but also to three or morelanguages and even to students’ home languages, which are not in the schoolcurriculum

In the context of language learning, themost important knowledge that students have is the knowledge of previously acquiredlanguages. To exclude this knowledge could have a negative effect on the learningprocess.

ultilingual speakers are different frommonolingual speakers in that they have the possibility of using resources from differentlanguages when they communicate