Both plurilingual and translanguaging pedagogical practices in the education of language minori-tized students remain controversial, for schools have a monolingual and monoglossic traditionthat is hard to disrupt, even when the disrupting stance brings success to learners. At issue is thenational identity that schools are supposed to develop in their students, and the Eurocentricsystem of knowledge, circulated through standardized named languages, that continues toimpose what Quijano (2000) has called a coloniality of power

It de-natur-alizes, that is, the named languages that have been codified by the nation-state to develop govern-able subjects (Foucault 1997)

ation-state building and their often associated ventures of colonial expansion

If plurilingualism was coined by the Council of Europe to ensure the political and economic cohesionof the European Union,

This fact can easily transforms these classrooms into monolingual ones whereinstruction is, for all intents and purposes, only in the national language. In fact, plurilingual programsfor refugees are almost non-existent!

n contrast, plurilingualism for brown and black refugees acts differently. A

Plurilingualism for these speakers is thus compatible with the supranationalconcept of the European Union (an EU with distinct national languages that work together), aswell as with the national concept of European states (with a single national language). PlurilingualEuropeans continue to be conceived of as ‘native’ speakers of a national language, although theymay use different national languages as they see fit in their specific communicative situation. Thenational and linguistic identity of Europeans is not moved, even if their language repertoireexpands to consist of what are considered bits of other national languages, creating speakers withbroader horizons, and encompassing a more European persona. In this context, the interest in plur-ilingualism follows an economic imperative and might be complicit in what Flores (2013) notes is aneoliberal need for flexible workers and citizens

. We see, then, that despite the advent of a plurilingual philosophy in asociety that aims to be plurilingual, the goal of language education for white European citizensand brown and black refugees remains different and is embodied in persistently differentapproaches.

We have remarked on the extension of the benefits of plurilingualism efforts to black and brownimmigrants. But there are still differences in how plurilingualism in education gets taken up depend-ing on the identity of the students. For white European citizens, we have seen that plurilingualismacknowledges that it is impossible for individuals to be two (or three) monolinguals in one. It isthus accepted that language education programs do not need to aim at making students fully com-petent in a second or third language. Instead, as we have discussed, what is important is that oneacquire competence to communicate to varying degrees. Differentiated language abilities are seenas required, as white European citizens cross borders to study, work, and live

The emphasis on linguistic rights promoted by the Language Policy Task Force of the Council ofEurope means that more attention is also being paid to the learner at the center of all plurilingualeducation initiatives, including CLIL and language awareness programs, but also in educational pro-grams that target refugee students

hese multilingual awareness projects corre-spond to the goals of the Council of Europe of ‘education for plurilingualism,’ including educating ‘forlinguistic tolerance, raise awareness of linguistic diversity and educate for democratic citizenship’(Council of Europe 2003, 16)

. In addition, the concept of pluri-lingualism has transformed traditional foreign language education, stressing that the goal should bepartial competence in multiple languages, rather than full competence in two or three. Plurilingual-ism, it is argued, should be the focus of language education and the goal for all European citizens.

A plurilingual European citizen is thus said to have plurilingual competence in a ‘repertoire oflanguages,’ and holds values of plurilingual tolerance toward all languages and varieties. Toprepare these plurilingual European citizens, a plurilingual and intercultural education should be fos-tered. This plurilingual and intercultural education should protect the right to learn additionallanguages, but also the right to speak a first language and the right to a quality education in thelanguage of instruction

Not all language minoritized communities have been given access to even monoglossically-inspired additive bilingual education programs. Some have been given much less, others havebeen given more. Those given less include very threatened communities that have been simplyignored, erased, by the educational authorities, and who remain uneducated in monolingual (oreven multilingual!) programs where instruction is conducted in languages they do not know.Many tribal groups in India fall in this category

It is this Canadian immersion model that has spread today to the so-called English-mediuminstruction (EMI) programs that have proliferated all over the world, especially in Asia. These pro-grams are fueled by the desire to teach English so as to facilitate access to the symbolic goodsthat English supposedly represents (Adamson and Feng 2009; Hu 2007).

As studies of multilingualism emerged in the second half of the twentieth century, the world wasundergoing an important socio-political change – the colonial structures of the European Empiresstarted to be dismantled. The independence movements of Asian and African countries unleasheda sense of ethnic, racial and linguistic pride, as more minoritized groups clamored for greater politicaland economic rights (Fishman 1985). These were often accompanied by demands for a different typeof education, one that respected and leveraged the cultural and linguistic practices of local commu-nities (García and Lin 2017a). And in some contexts, language majorities, threatened by the increasedpower of the speakers of the ‘other’ languages started also clamoring for an education that woulddevelop the bilingualism of their own children. The stage was set for the development of a newtype of bilingual education – immersion programs

considered monolingual representatives of the nation-state, are taught an additional language,which is always seen as second to their first. Foreign language education programs reinforce the con-struction of named languages as spoken in specified, and foreign, nation-state(s), the idea being thatthe learning of this language will contribute to increased communication between people of differentcountrie

Bilingualism; languageeducation; multilingualism;plurilingualism;translanguaging

A comparison of results from facultyinterviews, student questionnaires, and the document analysis wouldbe triangulation by sources and methods.

ask-based analysesreveal more than text-based analyses about the dynamic qualitiesof target discourse

real world "uses" ofgrammatical constructions often differ from the "usages"modeled in grammar-based language teaching materials

the lack of relevance that traditionalmaterials for teaching English as a foreign language have for refugees. To solve these issues,teachers will have access to the following resources:1. Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants (LIAM)Toolkit (Council of Europe): Tools andresources designed to assist organizations, and especially volunteers, providing languagesupport for adult refugees.https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-support-for-adult-refugees/home?desktop=true2. Language for Resilience (British Council): Theoretical resources that examine theimpact of language on refugees and host communities, identifying how language skillsenhance resilience and providing suggestions to address key needs.https://www.britishcouncil.org/language-for-resilience3. The English Hub for Refugees: Teaching materials tailored to meet the specificlanguage learning needs and challenges of refugees and asylum seeker

nally, it is important to clarify that this course is specifically designed to support the languageteaching/learning process of refugees and asylum seekers.

in this specific learning context

Finally, it is important to clarify that this course is specifically designed to support the languageteaching/learning process of refugees and asylum seekers.

But because of power differentials built up duringthe processes of nation-building and colonial formation, monolingual white elites and their ways of

In the United States, translanguaging has more ofa social justice focus and is seen as empowering minority students

It also distinguishes pedagogicaltranslanguaging from spontaneous translanguaging and provides a definitionand theoretical principles

It is obvious that extended exposure tothe target language(s) is necessary, but there is also a real need to build on whatstudents already know

hich proposes planned activities involving two or more languagesso that languages reinforce one another and multilingual students make the mostof their linguistic repertoire and their experience as language learners andlanguage users.

Languages can reinforce each other and prior linguistic know-ledge is an advantage that can be used in the classroom. Another argument isthat using two or more languages in the same lesson does not imply lessexposure to the target language even if this is a minority language. The timeallocated to activating resources from the majority language in the space of theminority language can easily be compensated for when pedagogical trans-languaging is implemented across the curriculum and the minority language isalso used in the majority-language lessons.

edagogical translanguaging is about activatingmultilingual speakers’ resources so as to expand language and content learning.Multilinguals have broader repertoires than monolinguals, and they are oftenmore experienced language learners

The richtrajectories multilingual students often have are useful resources for learningadditional languages and academic subjects

that each ofthese and other groups needs varies greatly, however, meaning thatlanguage teaching using generic programs and materials, not de-signed with particular groups in mind, will be inefficient

Participant and non-participant observation have theadvantage of allowing direct, in-depth, contextualized study of whatparticipants actually do, of the activities of interest in their naturalenvironment (natural, that is, except for the presence of the outsideobserver in the case of non-participant observation

uestionnaires, especially if mailed, group-administered or adminis-tered by third parties, can procure sizeable amounts of focused,standardized, organized data, potentially from a large sample ofrespondents, and do so relatively quickly and cheaply. They canaccomplish all this, moreover, with the option of anonymity (shouldthat be important to respondents) and with less chance of interviewerbias, since the questions asked, the order in which they are asked,and the precise way they are asked can all be carefully planned andfixed. On the other hand, response rates can be low, and the type ofinformation and range of responses obtained are likely to be limitedby the use of pre-determined questions and response options andformats. In a sense, that is, unstructured interviews serve to identifyrelevant questions, whereas questionnaires assume knowledge of theright questions and test hypotheses about answers

The interview is a keydata-gathering tool in many branches of the social sciences, mostnotably in anthropology and linguistics fieldwork.

hey includeboth inductive and deductive procedures (Berwick, 1989). Theformer involve use of expert intuitions, participant and non-participant observation, and unstructured interviews, from whichcategories of needs are derived; the latter include use of devices andinstruments, such as structured interviews, questionnaires, andcriterion-referenced performance tests, with pre-set categories

When different sources and/or methods produce conflicting find-ings, it is important to pursue the matter. Which sources are right, ormore likely to be, and which to be followed when designing aprogram? Are none of them right? Or are all of them right (at leastthose involving different sources)? Assuming one rejects the post-modernist and epistemological relativist view that different views ofreality, including tasks, simply reflect the fact (sic) that all of them are'socially constructed' (in which case, there would be no such thing as'facts', and one would not be bothered by conflicting findings, orindeed by 'findings' at all), this is exactly where triangulation, asopposed to informal cross-checking, can help the needs analyst. So,too, can one or more independent measures of the variable con-cerned, e.g., students' L2 proficiency or a flight attendant's know-ledge and competenc

Not to be confused withany of the above, checking findings from two (or two hundred) moreindividuals of the same type using the same procedure, e.g., thefindings from one faculty interview against those from anotherfaculty interview, simply constitutes what Lincoln & Guba (p. 305)call 'multiple copies' of one type of source, not triangulation ofdifferent sources. Similarly, comparing findings from faculty inter-views with reading requirements listed on course syllabuses writtenby the same faculty members would be a case of comparing differentmethods of accessing the same information from the same source, nottriangulation of sources

There is an urgent need for courses of all kindsto be relevant - and to be seen to be relevant - to the needs of specificgroups of learners and of society at large.

he backgroundknowledge, cultural knowledge, and sociolinguistic and pragmaticskills required are sometimes difficult even for native speakers toacquire, and harder still for the two populations targeted in herstudy: recent immigrants, and workers with an intellectual disability.

n

This and an accompanying cost-benefit analysis allowthem to distinguish 'private marginal value' - what an individualconsiders when deciding to learn or maintain skills in a language, and'social marginal value' - the societal need for that language.

discourse communities of which they seek to becomemembers. As a recent discussion of discourse communities in aca-demic disciplines concluded:Communities ... differ from one another along both socialand cognitive dimensions, offering contrasts not just in theirfields of knowledge, but also in their ways of talking, theirargument structures, aims, social behaviors, power relations,and political interests. (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002, p. 6)

n the UK, r

participants associatedlearning English with increased autonomy and the development of a renewed socialidentity. A qualitative study by Miller

The impact of English on participants’ lives consisted of moving from dependenceto autonomy, a sense of achievement, and learning English was associatedwith hopes for further changes including in employment and education

Refugees’ psychological problems are better understood in thecontext of the challenges of adaptation to many difficult circumstances than inpsychiatric terms

Many refugees and asylum seekers arrive in the host country having incurredextensive material and social losses (United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees [UNHCR], 2007).

destination country prior ttination country or have friincentive to learn

assimilationdegree of return aWestern Europe (Engin the pre-accessionof the implica

xts. The selectivity of migrant groups relative to their origin countrycounterparts as well as compared with other groups may also affect their integrationprocesses (Ichou, 2014), but the implications of such selectivity across economic andcultural domains can only be understood if we know what characteristics, resourcesand orientations they arriv

data - that reveal how integration outcomes differsubstantially between immigrants from different origins across a number of WesternEuropean cou

norities inconcept of multiculturalismlarge flows of migrants fromthe issue of migrant i

The goal of the project was to obtain a more complete picture of integrprocesses in Europe and of the role of individual traits, group characteristics and retion contexts

The recovery framework provides a foundation for government andnon-government organizations seeking to improve the quality of their ser-vices to refugees.

Over the past eighteen years, VFST has provided counsellingand advocacy interventions for individuals, families and groups of refugeesfrom many different countries. It has developed a framework that linkstraumatic events, namely, the experience of violence, systemized persecu-tion and forced displacement to their social and psychological effects.These effects can include anxiety, helplessness, loss of control, isolation,loss of trust, erosion of meaning and identity, guilt and shame

As a new and emerging community, many of the Sudanese are pro-foundly affected by their experiences of war, flight and the hardship ofcamps or other places where they first seek asylum.

Two cultures: one lifeJenny Mitchell, Ida Kaplan and Louise Crowe

Acknowledgement of the strong communal culture of the SouthSudanese people is critical to the engagement and the formulation ofculturally-responsive services to support their resettlement in Australia

his situation can be remedied if pedagogical translanguagingis also implemented in the Basque and Spanish classes and students work with thethree languages in the three language classes.

An important benefit of pedagogical translanguaging is that learners can have greateraccess to information when they can use different languages.

In this article we look at language classes, but pedagogicaltranslanguaging is also relevant for the learning of academic content because contentis learned through the medium of language

Multilingual speakers have a rich repertoire, which can be used as a resource to commu-nicate and to learn additional languages more effectively. It is natural for multilingualspeakers to try to use resources from other languages because they try to link theirprior knowledge to new knowledge. ‘Focus on multilingualism’ also looks at thesocial context of communicative interaction. When multilingual speakers communicate(face-to-face or digitally) they use multilingual resources in their repertoire and translan-guage to a greater or lesser extent depending on the social context.

Pedagogical translanguaging has these characteristics (Cenoz and Gorter,2021):1) It can be applied not only to two languages, as in Wales, but also to three or morelanguages and even to students’ home languages, which are not in the schoolcurriculum

We argue that learning can be enhanced when hard boundaries that isolate languagesare replaced by soft and permeable boundaries so that students can use their prior knowl-edge when teaching and learning a second or additional language. We discuss the conceptof pedagogical translanguaging as compared to other uses of the term translanguaging. Inthe second section we look at the way it can be applied in language programmes for stu-dents of different backgrounds. Then we address practices based on pedagogical trans-languaging in language classes. The final section discusses the challenges and futureperspectives of pedagogical translanguaging.Cenoz and Gorter 343

In the context of language learning, themost important knowledge that students have is the knowledge of previously acquiredlanguages. To exclude this knowledge could have a negative effect on the learningprocess.

ultilingual speakers are different frommonolingual speakers in that they have the possibility of using resources from differentlanguages when they communicate

Los alumnos que cuenten con una preparación plurilingüe tendránmayor facilidad de integración en la realidad actual internacionalizada, conuna visión plural de la sociedad (Kramer y Nugent, 2014). Serán así individuosy profesionales en un contexto global donde el conocimiento de una lenguaextranjera les brinda una apertura constante a los demás y un vínculo entreculturas diversas. En suma, podrán operar de manera plena comoprofesionales y fomentar la integración y cohesión en los planos profesional ypersonal.

Resettlement significantly alters the position the refugees occupy in theirsocial networks. In a country of resettlement, such as Australia, the notionof an elder can be problematic

The receiving society, through its institutional structureand the way it reacts to newcomers, has much more say in the outcomesof an integration process (Penninx, 2003)

Community recovery needed to address this fragmentation, and look atways to support the community to sustain its identity in a new and differentenvironment.

s the project progressed,it became obvious that, among the group, there was a shared desire toprotect and assert these identities in the face of resettlement challenges as

. Supporting the organic anddynamic processes (Ife, 2003, p. 4) of people coming together to achievecommon goals helps to restore meaning and purpose to their lives andinstills hope for the future

A more sustain-able initiative was the production of a regular community radio programme

. This pilot project sought to assess

This approach shares many parallels withSarig’s community resilience model discussed by Doron, which acknowl-edges the need to build strong coping mechanisms from within the commu-nity and identifies components of community resilience, includingbelonging, control, leadership, values and support systems

Investigación-Acción

Santos-Sopena, O. O. (2016). Interculturalidad y migración: la experiencia educativa y lingüística en el aprendizaje de español en rumanos. Revista Nebrija de Lingüística Aplicada, 10 (21), pp. 59-62. https://doi.org/10.26378/rnlael1021273 

Brady, I. K., Tomás Cámara,  D. y Sánchez Muñoz, A. R. (2019). El desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa e intercultural en lengua inglesa mediante un estudio de campo con residentes extranjeros en España. Docencia e Investigación, 30, pp. 33-54.

Multiliteraci

Une nation est donc une grande solidarité, constituée par le sentiment des sacrifices qu'on a faitset de ceux qu'on est disposé à faire encore. Elle suppose un passé; elle se résume pourtant dans leprésent par un fait tangible: le consentement, le désir clairement exprimé de continuer la viecommune.

Une nation est une âme, un principe spirituel. Deux choses qui, à vrai dire, n'en font qu'une,constituent cette âme, ce principe spirituel. L'une est dans le passé, l'autre dans le présent. L'uneest la possession en commun d'un riche legs de souvenirs; l'autre est le consentement actuel, ledésir de vivre ensemble, la volonté de continuer à faire valoir l'héritage qu'on a reçu indivis.

L'homme est tout dans la formation de cette chose sacrée qu'on appelle unpeuple. Rien de matériel n'y suffit. Une nation est un principe spirituel, résultant descomplications profondes de l'histoire, une famille spirituelle, non un groupe déterminé par laconfiguration du sol

N'abandonnons pas ceprincipe fondamental, que l'homme est un être raisonnable et moral, avant d'être parqué dans telleou telle langue, avant d'être un membre de telle ou telle race, un adhérent de telle ou telle culture.Avant la culture française, la culture allemande, la culture italienne, il y a la culture humaine

Leslangues sont des formations historiques, qui indiquent peu de choses sur le sang de ceux qui lesparlent, et qui, en tout cas, ne sauraient enchaîner la liberté humaine quand il s'agit de déterminerla famille avec laquelle on s'unit pour la vie et pour la mort.

En el caso ucraniano, setrata de un país en donde se hablan idiomasdiferentes (aunque similares), existen ele-mentos culturales diferentes (rusos étnicosfrente a ucranianos étnicos, etcétera), peroque pertenecen una familia cultural comúny que comparten una historia troncal comúnque identifica al Rus de Kiev con el inicio deRusia y de Ucrania

Se identifica con una lengua co-mún, una historia común, ciertos valores yuna identidad común, de lo que se desprendeuna necesidad política común; a la vez que serelaciona con el hecho material de un mer-cado nacional. Sin embargo, estos elementospueden ser atributos de una nación, perono la definen en términos absolutos, sinoque varían según las situaciones

“La nación es elarco de solidaridades que une al “nosotros”definido por la común pertenencia al terri-torio acotado por un Estado” (O’Donnell,1978: 1190).

El obstáculo para esteprograma era la realidad política y económicadel sur y el este ucraniano, que se correspondecon el predominio cultural y lingüístico ruso,lo que impide al bloque liberal-nacionalista at-lantista construir una “nación” culturalmentehomogénea y “occidental”. Por lo tanto, bus-caron avanzar en una transformación étnica-cultural, buscando producir el proceso inversoal de la “rusificación” llevado adelante duranteel estalinismo en los años treinta

febrero de 2014que Ucrania era un país fracturado y que for-zar su anexión a “Occidente

La guerra en Ucrania, un conflicto mundial

Aqui habla ingles ? Langue, pouvoir et identité

En línea con los criterios establecidos en el Marco Común Europeo deReferencia para las Lenguas (MCER) (Consejo de Europa, 2001, 2017) y lasobservaciones realizadas por la Comisión Europea,