T h u s the private office of an e x e c u tiv e isc e rta in ly the front region where his s t a t u s in the o rg a n iz a tio ni s in te n s iv e ly e x p r e s s e d by m eans of the quality of his officefu rn ish in g s. And yet it is here th at he ca n ta k e h is ja c k e toff, lo o se n h i s tie, keep a bottle of liquor handy, and act ina chummy and even b o is te r o u s way with fellow e x e c u t iv e sof h is own rank.

T h e d e c o r a tio n s an d permanent fix tu re s in a p la c e wherea p a r tic u la r perform ance is u s u a lly given, a s well a s theperform ers and perform ance u s u a lly found in it, tend to fix akin d of s p e l l over i t ; even w hen the custom ary perform ancei s not being given in it, the p la c e te n d s to retain so m e ofi t s front region ch a ra c te r.

Another a r e a is s u g g e s te d by the veryw idespread tendency in our s o c iety to give perform ers controlover the p la c e in which they a tte n d to what are c a lle dbiological n e e d s.

F irs t, we often find th a t control of b a c k s ta g e p la y s asig n ific a n t role in th e p r o c e s s of 'w o rk c o n t r o l ’ wherebyl de Beauvoir, op. c i L , p. 54 J.70

Very commonly the back region of a performance is lo c a te dat one end of the place where the performance i s p rese n ted ,being cut off from it by a p a rtitio n and guarded p a s sa g e w a y

A back region or b a c k s ta g e may be defined a s a p la c e ,r e la tiv e to a given perform ance, where the im pression f o ste re dby the perform ance i s knowingly co n tradicted a s a m a tte r ofco urse .

While in church, a womanmay be perm itted to s it, daydream, and even d o z e ; a s as a lesw o m a n on the floor of a d r e s s shop, she may be requiredto stand , keep alert, refrain from chew ing gum, keep a fixedsm ile on her f a c e even when not ta lk in g to anybody andwear c l o t h e s she ca n ill afford

It may be noted that the part of p ersonal front we havec a l l e d ' m a n n e r ’ will be im portant in regard to p o lit e n e s sand th at the part we have c a lle d ’ a p p e a r a n c e ’ will be important in regard to decorum

nstrumental requirem ents a re not e n d s in thems e l v e s and presumably refer to d u tie s such a s an employermight demand of his employe.es—ca re of property, m aintenanceof work le v e ls , e tc

Moral requirem ents aree n d s in th e m s e lv e s and presum ably refer to ru les regardingnon-interference and non-m olestation of o th e rs, r u le s regarding s e x u a l propriety, r u le s regarding r e s p e c t for s a c r e dp la c e s , etc.

Onegrouping h as to do with the way in which the performer t r e a tsthe a u d ie n c e while engaged in tall: with them or in g e s tu ra lin te r c h a n g e s that are a s u b s t itu te for talk. These s ta n d a r d sare so m etim es referred to a s m a tte rs of p o lit e n e s s . T he othergroup of s ta n d a r d s h as to do with the way in which th e performer com ports himself while in visual or aural range of theaud ien c e but not n e c e s s a r ily engaged in talk with them.I sh a ll u s e the term decorum to refer to t h is seco nd groupof s ta n d a rd s, although some e x c u s e s and some q u a lif ic a tio n swill have to be added to justify the u sa g e

o, too, the show m a inta in ed on the floor of a shop ty p ic allyin v o lv e s s e v e r a l foci of verbal in te raction, each com posedof a tte n d a n t-c u sto m e r p airs

However, in taking on the role of a performer, th eindividual n e e d not c e a s e to devote some o f his effort tonon-dram aturgical c o n c ern s, that is, to th e activity its e lfo f which th e perform ance offe rs an a c c e p ta b le dram atization

In gen eral, wefind th a t t h o s e who help p r e se n t a team -perform ance differin the d e g re e o f dram atic d o m inan ce given e a c h of them andth a t one team -ro utine diffe rs from an o ther in the e x te n t towhich d if f e r e n tia ls in d om inance a re given i t s members

he d ire c to r is likelyto resp o n d to t h i s r e s p o n s ib ility by making dram aturgicald em a n d s on th e performance that chey might not make uponth e m s e lv e s . This may add to th e e s tra n g e m e n t they mayalre ad y feel from him. A director, h en c e, s ta r t in g a s a memberof th e team, may find him self slow ly edged into a marginalrole betw e en a u d ie n c e and perform ers, h a lf in and half out ofboth cam ps, a kind of go-betw een w ithout the p rotec tion thatg o -b e tw e e n s u s u a lly have. T h e factory foreman h a s beena r e c e n tly d i s c u s s e d example.

S econdly, the d irec tor may be given the s p e c ia l duty ofa l lo c a tin g th e p a r ts in the perform ance and the personal frontthat i s em ployed in ea ch part, for each e s ta b lis h m e n t maybe s e e n a s a p la c e with a number of c h a r a c t e r s to d is p o s eo f to p r o s p e c tiv e performers and a s an a s s e m b l a g e of signequipment or cerem onial p ara p h ern alia to be a llo c a te d

Often, of co u rse , th e d irec tor will not s o much hav e to smotherimproper affec t as he will have to stim u la te a show of properaffec tiv e in vo lv e m e n

i r s t , th e direc to r may be given th e s p e c i a l duty of bringing baclc into line any member of the team w hose perform ancebecom es u n s u ita b le

important

T h e obv io u s point muse be sta te d chat if th e team is cos u s t a i n che im p re ssio n chat ic i s fostering , then chere mustbe som e a s s u r a n c e that no individual will be allow ed tojoin boch team and a u d ie n c e

In many im portant s o c i a l s it u a ti o n s ,how ever, th e s o c ia l s e ttin g in w hich the in te ra c tio n o c c u rsis a s s e m b l e d and m anaged by one of the t e a m s only, andc o n t r i b u te s in a more intim ate way to the show th is teamp u ts on than to thfe show put on in r e s p o n s e by the otherteam.

T h u s, in larges o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts , where se v e ra l different s t a t u s grade sprevail, we find that for the duration of any particular interaction, p a r ti c ip a n ts of many d ifferent s t a t u s e s are ty pic allye x p e cted to alig n th e m s e lv e s temporarily into two team groupi n g s.

Similarly,th o s e who are known to become in to x ic a te d when drink isa v a ila b le and who become verbose or ' d ifficult ’ when chiso c c u r s c o n s titu t e a perform ance risk, a s do those who areso b e r but foolishly in d is c r e e t, and th ose who re fu se to ' e n t e rinto th e s p i r i t ’ of the o c c a s io n and help s u s ta in the im pressionthat the g u e s t s ta c itly u n ite in maintaining to the h o st

And, of c o u r s e , this kind of s o lid a rityin the p r e s e n c e o f s u b o r d in a t e s a l s o o c c u rs when perform ersa re in the p r e s e n c e of su p e ro r d in a te s

T o withhold froma te aii-m a te information about the s ta n d h is team i s takingi s to w ithhold his c h a r a c te r from him, for without knowingwhat sta nd he will be ta k in g he may not be a b l e to a s s e r t as e lf to th e au d ien c e

In other words, in s ta g in ga definitio n of the situ atio n , it may be n e c e s s a r y for th ese v e r a l m em bers of the team to be unanim ous in the p o s it io n sth e y ta k e and s e c r e ti v e about th e fact that t h e s e p o s itio n sw ere noc in d e p en d e n tly arrived at.

It se e m s to be g enerally felt th a t pub lic d isa g re em entamong the members of the team not only in c a p a c i t a t e s themlor united action but a l s o e m b a r ra s s e s the r e a lity spo nso redby the team. To protect th is im pre ssion of rea lity, membersof the team may be required to postpon e taking public s ta n d suntil the p o sitio n of th e team has been s e t t l e d ; and oncethe te am ’s sta n d h a s been tak en, all members may be obligedto follow it.

O ther m eansto e n d s , s u c h a s fo rce o r b arg a in in g power, may be in c r e a s e dor d e c r e a s e d by s t r a t e g i c m a n ipula tion of im p r e s s io n s , butt h e e x e r c i s e of f o rc e or barg a in in g pow er g iv e s to a s e t ofin d iv i d u a l s a s o u r c e of group formation u n c o n n e c te d withthe fact th a t on c e r ta in o c c a s i o n s t h e group th u s formed i sl i k e l ^ t o a c t, d r a m a tu r g ic a lly sp e a k in g , a s -a te am

nformal ag re e m e n t i s not a criterio n for defining thec o n c e p t of team

Similarly, agirl a t a party who is flagrantly a c c e s s i b l e may be sh unnedby th e other g irls who a r e p r e s e n t, but in c e r ta in m a tte rs sh eis part of th e ir team and c a n n o t fail to th rea ten the d efin itio nthey are c o l le c tiv e ly m a in ta in in g th a t g ir ls a re d ifficu lt s e x u a lp r iz e s .

mong te am -m a tes , th ep riv ile g e of f a m ilia rity —which may c o n s titu t e a kind of intim acywithout warm th—nee d not be s o m e th in g of an organic kind,slow ly d ev e lo p in g with the p a s s a g e o f tim e s p e n t to ge th er,but rath e r a formal r e la tio n s h i p th a t i s a u to m a tic a lly e x te n d e dan d r e c e iv e d a s soon a s the in dividual t a k e s a p la c e on th eteam

th e y will hardly be in a p o sitio n to m aintainthat p a r ti c u la r im p r e s s io n before o n e another

Where s ta f f a n d lin e s t a t u s e s tend to d iv id ean o rg a n iz a tio n , perform ance t e a m s may te n d to in te g ra tet h e d iv is io n s

E ac h team -m ate i s forced to rely on t h e good conduct andb e ha viour o f h i s fello w s, and they, in turn, a r e forced to relyon him

h i s p o s s i b i l i t y l e a d s u s to c o n s id e r a further o n e. T h eind iv id u al may p r iv a te ly m aintain s t a n d a r d s of b ehaviour whichhe d o e s not p e r s o n a lly b e l ie v e in, m a in ta in in g t h e s e s t a n d a r d sb e c a u s e of a liv e ly b e l ie f that an u n s e e n a u d i e n c e i s p r e s e n twhich will p u n ish d e v i a ti o n s from t h e s e s ta n d a r d s . In o th e rwords, an ind iv id u al may be h i s own a u d i e n c e or may im a g in ean a u d i e n c e to be p r e s e n

Given t h i s point of refe re n c e ,it i s p o s s i b l e to a s s i m i l a t e su c h s i t u a t i o n s a s tw o-personi n te r a c tio n into th e framework by d e s c r ib in g t h e s e s i t u a t i o n sa s tw o-team in te ra c tio n in w hich ea ch team c o n t a i n s only o n emember

an em ergent team im p re ssio n a r i s e s whichcan c o n v e n ie n tly be tr e a te d a s a fact in i t s own right, a s athird le v el of fact lo c a te d betw e en th e in d iv id u a l perform anceon one hand and th e to ta l in te ra c tio n of p a r ti c ip a n ts on th eother.

hen o u t s i d e r s ace p r e s e n t , th e to u ch o( b u s i n e s s l i k e formality i se v e n more im portant. You may c a l l your s e c re ta ry ' M a r y ' a n d y o u tp a r t n e r ' J o e * all d ay , bu t when a str a n g e r c o m es inn) your office yoush ou ld t efet to your a s s o c i a t e s a s you would e x p e c t the s t r a n g e r toa d d r e s s t h e m : M is s or Mr- You may h av e a r u nn ing jo k e w i t h thesw it c h b o a rd o p e r a t o r, but you let :t ride when you ar e p l a c i n g a callin an o u t s i d e r ' s h e a r in

In g en e ral, th en, a s e t o f in d iv id u a ls who c o -o p e ra te in s ta g in ga s in g l e r o u tin e may be referred to a s a perform ance teamor, in sh o rt, a team

When s h e a s s u m e s a re sp e c tfu l role, hecan a s s u m e a dom inant o n e ; and when ea ch member of them arriag e team p l a y s i t s s p e c ia l role, the co n ju g al unit, a s aunit, c a n s u s t a i n t h e im p re ssio n th a t new a u d i e n c e s e x p e c tof it.

B ut m ost im po rtant o f a ll, we commonly find that th e d efin ition of t h e s it u a ti o n p r o je c te d by a p a r ti c u la r p a r tic ip a n t i san in te g ra l p art o f a p ro je c tio n th a t i s f o s te r e d and s u s t a in e dby t h e in tim a te c o -o pe ra tion of more than o n e p a rtic ip a n t,and, m oreover, that ea ch member o f suc h a tro u p e or c a s tof p la y e r s may be req u ired to a p p e a r in a different light ifth e te a m ’ s o v e ra ll effec t i s to be s a t i s f a c t o r y .

sc o p e

product

h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the t a s k th a t i s perform edan d not t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e perform e

In th in king abo u t a perform ance it i s e a s y to a s s u m e th a tthe c o n te n t of t h e p r e s e n ta tio n i s merely an e x p r e s s i v e exte n sio n of th e c h a r a c t e r of th e perform er and to s e e th e functionof th e p erfo rm an ce in t h e s e p e rso n a l term s

h e s e in h ib i tio n s o f thea u d i e n c e allow th e perform er som e elbow-room in buildingup an im p r e s s ip n o f h i s own c h o i c e and allow him to function,for h i s own good or the a u d i e n c e ’ s, a s a pro tec tio n or a threatth a t c l o s e i n s p e c t io n would d es tro

A s p h e re of t h i s s o r t i s p l a c e d aroundman by h i s ' h o n o r . 1 L a n g u a g e very po ig n an tly d e s i g n a t e s an i n s u l tto o n e s honor a s 'c o m i n g too c l o s e : ’ the r a d i u s of t h i s s p h e r e m arks,a s it w er e, t h e d i s t a n c e w h o s e t r e s p a s s i n g by an o th e r p e r s o n i n s u l t so n e ' s honor.

prohibit the a u d ie n c e from lo ok inga t the performer at all, and at tim e s when c e le s c ia l q u a l i t i e sand pow ers have been claim ed by a performer, t h i s lo g ic alco n c lu sio n s e e m s to hav e been put into effect

If we s e e p e r c e p tio n a s a form of c o n t a c t and communion,»c con tro l o v e r what i s p e rc eiv e d i s con tro l over c o n ta c tth a t i s mr.J-

B e c a u s eof th e s e s h a re d dram atic c o n t in g e n c ie s , we ca n profitablystu d y p erfo rm an ce s th a t a re quite f a ls e in order to learn abouto n e s that a re q u ite h o n e s

c o n c e a l

With s u c hs t r a t e g i c a l l y lo c a te d p o i n t s of r e ti c e n c e , it i s p o s s i b l e tom aintain a d e s ir a b le status quo in the r e la tio n s h ip w ithouth a v in g to ca rry out rigidly th e im p l ic a tio n s of t h i s ag re e m e n tin all a r e a s of life

h e la rg e r t h e number of m a tte rs an d th e la rg e rth e number o f a c tin g p a r ts which fall within th e domain of thero le or r e la tio n s h i p , the more lik e lih o o d , it would seem , forp o in ts o f s e c r e c y to e x i s t.

Although p a r ti c u la r p erfo rm an ce s,a n d even p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s or r o u tin e s , may p l a c e a perform erin a p o sitio n of h aving nothing to h id e , so m ew here in thefull round of h is a c t i v i t i e s th e re will b e so m e th in g h e c a n n o tt r e a t o p e n ly

We find th at c h a r la ta n p ro fe s s io n a l a c tiv ityo f o n e d e c a d e b ec o m e s an a c c e p t a b l e le g itim a te o c c u p a tio nin th e next. 3 We find th a t a c t i v i t i e s which a r e thought tobe l e g itim a te by so m e a u d i e n c e s in our s o c ie ty are thoughtby o th e r a u d i e n c e s to be r a c k e ts

F u rth e r, in e v e ry d ay li f e it i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e forthe perform er to c r e a te in te n tio n a lly a lm o st any kind o f f a l s eim p re ssio n without pu ttin g h im s e lf tn th e in d e f e n s ib le p o sitio no f having told a c l e a r - c u t lie . Com m unication t e c h n iq u e ssuch a s innuendo, s t r a t e g i c am bigu ity, an d crucial o m is s io n sa llow th e m isinform er to profit from l i e s w ithout, te c h n ic a l ly ,te llin g any

t i s f e lt to be all right for im m ig ran ts toim p e r s o n a te n a t iv e A m eric an s in d r e s s and in p a t t e r n s ofdecorum but £a«L it is s t i l l a doubtful m atter to A m eric an iz eo n e ’s n a m e 2 or o n e ’s n o s e

F u r t h e r

r e a l l y .

la im s tob e a law g r a d u a te ca n b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s valid or invalid, butc laim s to be a friend, a true b e lie v e r, or a m usic lo v e r can beconfirmed or d isc onfirm ed only m o re-o r-le ss.

we may h a v e some sym pathy for th o s ewho hav e but o n e fata l flaw an d who attem pt to c o n c e a l thefac t th a t they are, for exam ple, e x - c o n v ic ts , deflow ered,e p i le p t ic or r a c ia ll y impure, i n s t e a d of adm itting th e ir faultand making an ho n o u rab le attem pt to liv e it down

Mythology and our popularm a g a z in e s , in fa c t, are full o f rom antic s t o r i e s in w hich th ev illa in and the hero both make fraud ulent c l a i m s that ared is c r e d ite d in th e l a s t ch a p te r, the v illa in p roving not to hav ea high s t a t u s , th e hero proving not to h a v e a low one

a u th o riz a tio n to play a part and th e c a p a c ity to play it

hen we d i s c o v e r th a t som e on e with whom we h a v ed e a l i n g s i s a n im p o s to r and out-and-out fraud, we are d i s c o v e rin g th a t he did not hav e th e right to play th e part he p la y e d ,th a t he w a s n o t an a c c r e d i te d incum bent o f the r e le v a n t s t a t u s

We often feel that it i s ju s t t h e s e te rrib le ev e n tu a l i t i e s , which a r i s e from being c a u g h t out, flagrante delicto,in a p a t e n t a c t o f m is re p re s e n t a ti o n , th a t an h o n e s t perform eri s a b l e t o avo id . T h i s c o m m o n -se n se view h a s lim ite d a na l y t i c a l u tility .

s mem bers o f t h e a u d i e n c e i t i s natural for u s to feelth a t th e im p re ssio n th e perform er s e e k s to g iv e may be trueo r f a l s e , g en u in e or s p u rio u s, v alid or ' p h o n y .

s h e s t r i v e s ro identify h e r s e l f with t h i s figure an dt h u s to se em t o h e r s e l f to be s t a b i l i z e d , j u s t i f i e d in her sple n do r

A c e r ta in b u re a u c ra tiz a tio n of thes p i r i t i s e x p e c t e d s o that we can be relied upon to give ap e rfe c tly h o m o g e n e o u s perform ance at every ap p o in te d time.A s S a n ta y a n a s u g g e s t s , t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s not onlytr a n s f ig u r e s , it f i x e s

In oth e r w ords, .we must be p repared to s e e th a t the im p re ssio nof r e a lity f o s te r e d by a perform ance i s a d e l ic a te , fra gile th in gt h a t can be s h a t t e r e d by very minor m is h a p s

nglo-Am erican s o c ie t y must often p a s s a s tr ic tt e s t of a p t n e s s , f i t n e s s , propriety, .and decorum

from in a d e q u a te dram aturgicalilirection

m p re ssio n th a t he i s to o much ortoo l i t t l e c o n c e rn e d with the in te r a c tio n

him self.

h r e e rough g ro u p in g s o f t h e s e e v e n t s may bem e ntio ned.

It h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d th a t th e perform er c a n rely uponh is a u d ie n c e to a c c e p t minor c u e s a s a sign of som ethingim portant about h i s perform ance. T h i s c o n v e n ie n t fa c t h a s anin c o n v e n ie n t im plica tio n . By v irtu e of th e same sig n -ac ce p cin gten d en c y , th e a u d ie n c e may m is u n d e r s ta n d th e m eaning th a t ac u e w a s d e s ig n e d to con vey, or may r e a d an e m b a rra ssin gm eaning into g e s t u r e s or e v e n t s that were a c c i d e n t a l , ina d v e r te n t, in c id e n t a l or not meant by the perform er co carryany m eaning w h ats o ev e r

In our com m ercial lif e t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i co f p e rfo rm a n c e s h a s b een e x p lo ite d a n d maligned u nder th erubric ' p e r s o n a l i z e d s e r v i c e ; ’ in o th e r a r e a s of life we makej o k e s about ' t h e b e d - s id e m a n n e r ’ o r ' t h e g la d h a n d .

h e a u d i e n c e ca n s e e a g r e a t s a v in g of tim e and em otionalenergy in th e righ t to tr e a t th e performer a t o c c u p a tio n a lfa e e - v a lu e , a s if t h e perform er w ere all a n d on ly what h i suniform c la im e d him to be.

S im ilarly, m edical s c h o o l s in Am erica te n d torec ru it th eir s t u d e n t s partly on the b a s i s o f e t h n i c orig in s,an d c e r ta in ly p a t ie n t s , c o n s id e r t h i s fac to r in c h o o s in g th e ird o c t o r s ; but in t h e a c tu a l in te r a c t io n betw e en d o c to r andp a tie n t the im p re ssio n i s a l lo w e d to d e v e lo p that th e d o ctori s . a d octor b e c a u s e o f s p e c i a l a p t i t u d e s a s well a s s p e c ia ltraining .

clergym en g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t they e n te r e d th e churchb e c a u s e o f a c a ll o f fe lt v o c a tio n , in America te nding toc o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in moving up s o c i a l l y , in B rita in te ndingto c o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in not moving to o far down

Reinforcing t h e s e id e a l i m p r e s si o n s we find a kin d of ' r h e t o r i c of tr a in in g ,' w hereby labourunions, u n i v e r s i t i e s , tr a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s , and o th e r l i c e n s in gb o d ie s re q u ire p r a c t i t i o n e r s to a b s o rb a m y s t ic a l rang e andp e rio d of train in g , in p a rt to maintain a monopoly, but inpart to f o s te r th e im p r e s s io n th a t th e l i c e n c e d p r a c titio n e ri s som eone s e t a p a r t from o th e r me

d e a l m o tiv e s for a c q u irin g the role in whichth e y are perform ing, th a t th e y have id e a l q u a l if ic a tio n s fort h e role, an d th a t it w a s not n e c e s s a r y for them to su ffe ran y in d ig n i tie s , in s u l t s , an d h u m ilia tio n s, or make an y ta c it ly -u n d e rsto o d ' d e a l s , ' in o rd er to a c q u ire th e role.

s e r v i c e .

fourth

T h ird ly

econdly

F i r s t ,

book

It h a s beens u g g e s t e d t h a t th e sa m e so rt of beh aviour, which we may referto a s ‘ s e c r e t c o n s u m p t i o n ’, ca n be found am ong the H indus.

In a s e n s e su c h i m p r e s s i o n s a re i d e a li z e d , too, for if th eperform er i s to b e s u c c e s s f u l h e m u st offer th e kin d of s c e n eth a t r e a l i z e s t h e o b s e r v e r s ’ extrem e s t e r e o t y p e s o f h a p l e s spov erty

I h a v e been told by S h e tla n d e r s th a t theic g ra n d f a th e rsu s e d to refrain from improving t h e a p p e a r a n c e of th e c o t ta g ele sc th e la ir d ta k e suc h im p rov em ents a s a sig n th a t in c r e a s e dr e n t s could be e x t r a c te d from them

m erica w h o se m em bers h a v e felt th a tsome a s p e c t o f every p erfo rm an ce o u g h t to play down thee x p r e s s io n o f s h e e r w ealth in o rd er to f o ste r th e im p re ssio nth a t s ta n d a r d s reg a rd in g birth, c u ltu r e , or moral e a r n e s t n e s sa r e t h e o n e s th a t p r e v a i

not in d iv id u a ls , but a l s o a so n e in w hich p e rf o rm a n c e s te n d to e s t a b l i s h favourable c l a i m sre g a rd in g n o n-m aterial v a l u e s

h e p ro p e r s ig n -eq u ip m en t h a s bee n o b ta in e d and fam iliarityg a in e d in t h e m an ag e m en t of it, then t h i s equipm ent c a n beu s e d to e m b e llis h and illu m in e o n e ’s daily p e rfo rm a n c e s w itha fa v o u r a b le s o c ia l s ty le

Commonly we find that upward mobility in v o lv e s th e p r e s e n tatio n of proper p erform ances and that effo rts to move upwardand e ffo rts to keep from moving downward a re e x p r e s s e d inte rm s of s a c r i f i c e s made for the m a in te n a n c e of front.

iis p erform ance will te n d to in c o rp o rate and exemplify th eo ffic ia lly a c c r e d i te d v a l u e s ot th e s o c ie t y , more so , in fact,limn d o e s h i s behavio ur a s a whole.

T h e a r i s t o c r a t i c h ab it, •ith a s b een s a id , i s one th a t m o b il iz e s all t h e minor a c t i v i t i e s ofl i f e w hich fall o u t s i d e th e s e r io u s s p e c i a l i t i e s of o th e r c l a s s e sa n d i n j e c t s in to t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s an e x p r e s s io n of c h a r a c t e r ,pow er, and high rank

he w ill be c o n c e r n e d not so much with th e full roundof t h e d if fe r e n t r o u t i n e s he perform s but only w ith th e o n efrom which h i s o c c u p a t io n a l r e p u ta tio n d e r iv e s .

When we e x a m in e a group or c l a s s , we find th a t them em bers o f it tend to in v e s t th e ir e g o s primarily in c e r ta inr o u tin e s , g ivin g l e s s s t r e s s to th e o th e r o n e s w hich th e y p e rform.

T h o s e who hav e th e time and ta len t to performa t a s k well may not, b e c a u s e of th is , h av e the tim e or ta le n tto make it apparenc that they are perform ing well.

T h u s to furnish a h o u s e so that it will e x p r e s s sim ple, qu ietdignity, th e h o u s e h o ld e r may h a v e to r a c e to a u c tio n s a l e s ,h a g g l e with a n tiq u e d e a le rs , an d doggedly c a n v a s s a ll th elo c al s h o p s for proper w allp ap e r an d cu rta in m a te ria ls

M erchan ts, too, often findth a t they must cha rge hig h p r i c e s for th in g s that look intrins i c a l l y e x p e n s iv e in order to c o m p e n s a te the e s ta b l is h m e n tfor e x p e n s iv e t h in g s lik e in s u r a n c e , s la c k p erio d s, e tc ., thatnever a p p e a r before th e c u s to m e rs ’ e y

he n u r s e s a r e “ w a s t i n g r i m e 0 u n l e s s they a r e d a r t i n g ab ou td oin g so m e v i s i b l e t h i n g s u c h a s a d m i n i s t e r i n g h y p o d e r m i

In many c a s e s , h ow ever, d r a m a tiz a tio n o f o n e 's work d o e sc o n s t i t u t e a problem .

h e must give an i n s t a n t a n e o u sd e c i s i o n so th a t th e a u d i e n c e will b e s u r e th a t h e i s s u r e o fh i s jud g e m en

confirm atory f a c ts th a t might o th e rw is e rem ain un-ap p a re n t or o b s c u r e .

but su c h e x c l u s i v e u s e ofsign equipm ent i s the e x c e p tio n rath er than the rule

found

D ental Corp’s c a p t a i n s , many of them of a tow e th n ic origin,c ou ld h a v e b e e n g iv e n a rank th a t would p e r h a p s hav e beenmore s u i t a b l e in the e y e s of t h e Army than the c a p t a i n c i e sthey w ere a c t u a l l y giv en

An i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e dilem m a of s e l e c t i n g ana p p r o p r ia te front from s e v e r a l not q uite f ittin g o i'e s may befound to d a y in A m erican m e d ic a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s with r e s p e c t toth e t a s k o f a d m in is t e r in g a n e s t h e s i a

T h u s , when a ta s k i sg ive n a new front we seldom find that the front it is g iv e n isi t s e l f new

As a com prom ise, th e full ran g e of d iv e rs ity is cutat a few crucial p o in ts , and all t h o s e w ithin a given brac ketare allo w ed or o b lig e d to m a in ta in the sam e s o c ia l front ince r ta in s it u a t i o n

will be perform ed in what h a s becom e a s ta n d a r d iz e d , c l i n i c a l ,c o n f id e n tia l manner.

r o v id e s u s w ith a m e a n s of s timu la tin g our i n t e r e s t in and a t te n t io n to e x c e p t i o n s

d e al type

d r e s s e d in th e g arm e n ts o f a high p o s it io n p r e s e n t s h im s e lf toan in d iv id u al of ev e n higher s t a t u s

anger

A p p e a r a n c e ’ may be ta k e n to refer tot h o s e stim uli which function at th e tim e to tell u s of th eperform er’s s o c ia l s t a t u s e s . T h e s e stimuli also te ll u s o fth e i n d i v i d u a l 's tem porary ritu a l s t a t e , th a t i s , w hether he i se n g a g in g in formal s o c ia l a c tiv i ty , work, or informal re c re a tio n ,w h eth e r or not he is c e le b r a tin g a new p h a s e in the s e a s o nc y c le or in h is lif e -c y c le . ' M a n n e r ' may be ta k e n to refer toth o s e stim uli w hich fu n ction at the tim e to warn u s of th e intera c tio n ro le th e performer will e x p e c t to play in th e on-comings it u a ti o n .

p e r s o n a l f r o n t ’ torefer to the oth e r ite m s of e x p r e s s i v e e q u ip m en t, th e ite m s th a twe most in tim a te ly id e n tify with th e perform er him s elf and th atwe n a t u r a lly e x p e c t will follow t h e perform er w herever he g o e s .As part of p e r s o n a l front we may i n c l u d e : in s ig n ia of o ffic e orr a n k ; c l o t h i n g ; s e x , age, and r a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; s i z e andl o o k s ; p o s t u r e ; s p e e c h p a t t e r n s ; f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n s ; bodil

ro n t, th e n , i s th e e x p r e s s i v e e quipm ent of as ta n d a r d kind i n t e n t io n a lly or unw ittin g ly em ployed by theind iv id u al during h is perform ance. F or p relim in ary p u r p o s e s , itv.ill be c o n v e n ie n t to d i s t i n g u i s h and la b e l what s e e m to be thesta n d aril p a r t s of fron

v a lid .

Another il l u s t r a t i o n maybe found in th e raw re c ru it who in it ia l ly fo llo w s army e t iq u e t tein o rd e r to a v oid p h y s ic a l punish m en t and who e v e n tu a lly co m esto follow th e r u l e s s o th a t h is o r g a n iz a tio n will not be sh a m e dand h i s o f f i c e r s a n d f e ll o w - s o ld i e r s will r e s p e c t him

t h e s e a r e c y n i c a l perform ers w hosea u d i e n c e s will not a llow them to be s in c e r e . Similarly, we findth a t s y m p a th e tic p a t i e n t s in m ental w ards will s o m e tim e s feignb iz a r re sym ptom s so th a t s tu d e n t n u r s e s will not be s u b je c t e dto a d is a p p o in ti n g ly s a n e perform ance. 1 So a ls o , when inferi o r s e x ten d th e ir most la v is h r e c e p tio n for v i s i tin g s u p e rio r s ,th e s e l f i s h d e s i r e to win favour may not be the c h i e f m o tiv e;the inferio r may be ta c tf u lly attem p tin g to put the su p e rio r ate a s e by s im u la tin g the kind of world the s u p e r io r i s thought tota k e for gran ted

A c y n i c a l in d ividual mayd elu d e h i s a u d i e n c e for what he c o n s i d e r s to be th e ir own good,or for the good o f the com munity, e t c .

It shou ld be u n d e rsto o d th a t th e c y n ic , witha ll h i s p r o f e s s io n a l d isin v o lv e m e n t, may o b ta in u n p r o fe s s io n a lp l e a s u r e s from his m a sq u e ra d e , e x p e r ie n c in g a kind of gleefuls p ir itu a l a g g r e s s io n from th e fac t that h e c a n toy a t will withsom ething h i s a u d i e n c e m ust ta k e s e r i o u s l y

C o u p led with th i s , th e perform er may be moved to .guide theco n v ic tio n of h i s a u d i e n c e only a s a m e a n s to o th e r e n d s ,ha v in g no u ltim ate co n c ern in th e c o n c e p t io n th a t th e y hav e ofhim o r of th e s it u a ti o n

p r e s e n te d .

people

i s th a t th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s to g e th er fit into a co h e ren t framework that t i e s to g e th e r b i t s of e x p e r ie n c e the r e a d e r h a s a lre a d yhad and p r o v id e s th e stu d e n t with a guide worth t e s t i n g in c a s e -s t u d i e s ’of i n s t itu ti o n a l s o c ia l life

In re a l life,th e t h r e e p a r t i e s are c o m p re s s e d into t w o ; th e p a rt o n e in d iv id u a l p l a y s i s ta ilo r e d to th e p a r ts p la y e d by th e o t h e r s pres e n t , and yet t h e s e o th e rs a l s o c o n s t i t u t e t h e a u d i e n c e .

e s t a g e p r e s e n t s t h i n g s th a t are m a k e - b e lie v e ; p resumab ly life p r e s e n t s th i n g s th a t are rea l a n d s o m e tim e s not wellr e h e a r s e d .

Thus there may be tangible social reasons why Jews have become preoccupied with certain scientific enterprises, but it isimpossible to predict scientific positions in terms of their beingheld by Jews or non-Jews.

hese result from accentuations of role specialization to thepoint where role-specific knowledge becomes altogether esoteric as against the common stock of knowledge.

There will now be an objectiveproblem with respect to an encompassing integration ofmeanings within the entire society.

The analysis of roles is of particular importance to the sociology of knowledge because it reveals the mediations betweenthe macroscopic universes of meaning objectivated in a societyand the ways by which these universes are subjectively real toindividuals

Looked at from theper�pe�tive of the institutional order, the roles appear asmsutut10nal representations and mediations of the institutionally objectivated aggregates of knowledge. Looked at fromthe perspective of the several roles, each role carries with it asocially defined appendage of knowledge

In this way, each role opens anentrance into a specific sector of the society's total stock ofknowledge. To learn a role it is not enough to acquire theroutines immediately necessary for its 'outward' performance.One must also be initiated into the various cognitive and evenaffective layers of the body of knowledge that is directly andindirectly appropriate to this rol

All these representations, however, derive theircontinuing significance an� even intelligibility from theirutilization in human conduct, which here, of course, is conducttypified in the institutional roles of the law

The roles represent the institutional order. 38 This representation takes place on two levels. First, performance of the rolerepresents itself. For instance, to engage in judging is to represent the role of judge. The judging individual is not acting'on his own', but qua judge. Second, the role represents anentire institutional nexus of conduct. The role of j udge standsin relationship to other roles, the totality of which comprisesthe institution of law.

and used to verifythe credentials of all performers and, by the same token, serveas controls

. In other words, a segment ofthe self is objectified in terms of the socially availabletypifications

Now a part· of the self is objectified as the performer of this action, withthe whole self again becoming relatively disidentifi.ed from theperformed action. That is, it becomes possible to conceive ofthe self as having been only partially involved in the action(after all, the man in our example is other things besides beinga nephew-thrasher)

The objectivated meanings of institutional activity are conceived of as 'knowledge' and transmitted as such. Some of this'knowledge' is deemed relevant to all, some only to certaintypes

It may refer, for instance, to thetransmission of typifications of others not directly relevant tospecific institutions. For example, others are typified as 'tall'or 'short', 'fat' or 'thin', 'bright' or 'dull', without any particular institutional implications being attached to these typifications.

In other words, legitimationscan succeed each other, from time to time bestowing newmeanings on the sedimented experiences of the collectivity inquestion.

The objectification of the experiencein the language (that is, its transformation .int� a gener�lyavailable object of knowledge) then allows 1ts mcorporattoninto a larger body of tradition by way of moral instruction,inspirational poetry, religious allegory .and whatnot.

As the institution ofhunting is crystallized and persists in time, the same body ofknowledge serves as an objective (and, incidentally, empiricallyverifiable) description of it

Since this knowledge is socially objectivatedas knowledge, that is, as a body of generally valid truths aboutreality, any radical deviance from the institutional orderappears as a departure from reality

It is very easy, as aresult, for the observer of any society to assume that itsinstitutions do indeed function and integrate as they are'supposed to'.

As theindividual reflects about the successive moments of hisexperience, he tries to fit their meanings into a consist�ntbiographical framework. This tendency increa�es . as the .Individual shares with others his meanings and their biographicalintegration.

The institutions must and do claim authority overthe individual, independently of the subjective meanings hemay attach to any particular situation. The priority of theinstitutional definitions of situations must be consistentlymaintained over individual temptations at redefinition

It follows that theexpanding institutional order develops a corresponding canopyof legitimations, stretching over it a protective cover of bothcognitive and normative interpretation. These legitimationsare learned by the new generation during the same processthat socializes them into the institutional order. This, again,will occupy us in greater detail further on.

Since institutions exist as external reality,the individual cannot understand them by introspection. Hemust 'go out' and learn about them, just as he must to learnabout nature.

Empirically, of course, the institutional world transmitted by most parents already has the character of historicaland objective reality. The process of transmission simplystrengthens the parents' sense of reality, if only because, toput it crudely, if one says, 'This is how these things are done',often enough one believes it oneself. 2

For the children, the parentally transmitted world is not fully transparent. Since they had no partin shaping it, it confronts them as a given reality that, likenature, is opaque in places at least.

This means that the institutionsthat have now been crystallized (for instance, the institutionof paternity as it is encountered by the children) are experienced as existing over and beyond the individuals who'happen to' embody them at the moment. In other words, theinstitutions are now experienced as possessing a reality of theirown, a reality that confronts the individual as an external andcoercive fact. 2

Theconstruction of this background of routine in tum makespossible a division of labour bet)¥een them, opening the wayfor innovations, which demand a higher level of attention

The most important gain isthat each will be able to predict the other's actions.

hus a collection of reciprocally typified actions will emerge,habitualized for each in roles, some of which will be performedseparately and some in common. 22 While this reciprocal typification is not yet institutionalization (since, there only bemgtwo individuals, there is no possibility of a typology of actors),it is clear that institutionalization is already present in nucleo

To say that a segment ofhuman activity has been institutionalized is already to saythat this segment of human activity has been subsumed undersocial control

Putdifferently, any such typification is an institution.

Institutionalization occurs whenever there is a reciprocaltypification of habitualized actions by types of actors

he activity to beundertaken in these situations can then be anticipated. Evenalternatives of conduct can be assigned standard weights

And by providing a stable background inwhich human activity may proceed with a minimum ofdecision-making most of the time, it frees energy for suchdecisions as may be necessary on certain occasion

Habitualized actions, of course, retain their meaningfulcharacter for the individual although the meanings involvedbecome embedded as routines in his general stock of knowledge, taken for granted by him and at hand for his projectsinto the future.17

In other wordsalthough no existing social order can be derived from bio�logical data, the necessity for social order as such stems fromman's biological equipment

it is a human product.

One may stimulate one's sexualimagination to a pitch of feverish lust, but it is unlikely thatone can conjure up any image that will not correspond to whatin some other culture is an established norm, or at least anoccurrence to be taken in stride. If the term 'normality' is torefer either to what is anthropologically fundamental or towhat is culturally universal, then neither it nor its antonymcan be meaningfully applied to the varying forms of humansexuality. At the same time, of course, human sexuality isdirected, sometimes rigidly structured, in every particularculture. Every culture has a distinctive sexual configuration,with its own specialized patterns of sexual conduct and its own'anthropological' assumptions in the sexual area. The empiricalrelativity of these configurations, their immense variety andluxurious inventiveness, indicate that they are the product ofman's own socio-cultural formations rather than of a biologically fixed human nature.

Notonly is the survival of the human infant dependent upon certain social arrangements, the direction of his organismicdevelopment is socially determined. From the moment ofbirth, man's organismic development, and indeed a large partof his biological being as such, are subjected to continuingsocially determined interferenc

Man's instinctual organization may be described as underdeveloped, compared with that of the other higher mammals.Man does have drives, of course. But these drives are highlyunspecialized and undirected. This means that the humanorganism is capable of applying its constitutionally givenequipment to a very wide and, in addition, constantly variableand varying range of activities

By contrast, man's relationship to his environment is characterized by world-openness. 3 Not only has man succeeded inestablishing himself over the greater part of the earth's surface,his relationship to the surrounding environment is everywherevery imperfectly structured by his own biological constitution.The latter, to be sure, permits man to engage in different activities. But the fact that he continued to live a nomadic existence in one place and turned to agriculture in another cannotbe explained in terms of biological processes

There is no man-world in the sensethat one may speak of a dog-world or a horse-world.

Knowledge of how the socially available stock ofknowledge is distributed, at least in outline, is an importantelement of that same stock of knowledge. In everyday life Iknow, at least roughly, what I can hide from whom, whom Ican turn to for information on what I do not know, andgenerally which types of individuals may be expected to havewhich types of knowledge.61

He respondedto the challenge and took part enthusiastically in the reform movements thatradiated from the University of Chicago to the city at large. UnUke the sage ofAnn Arbor, the one-time president of Chicago's reforming City Club couldnot maintain a stance of detached observation, but was deeply immersed in theproblems of urban America

Mead, after his short period at Ann Arbor, taughtin Chicago, a city second to none in its newness, roughness, industrial vitality,

He waited on tables duringhis college years and thereafter immersed himself in the drama of the frontierwhile serving on surveying expeditions. Cooley, the son of an upper-status andindependently wealthy member of the elite, could afford a long period of semi-idleness in order "to find himself." Mead, the son of a poorly paid professor oftheology who died when Mead was still in college and left his widow andchildren in straitened circumstances, could not afford such leisure. If he was"to find himself," it was not in the privacy of his study but in the demandingenvironment of surveying crews, among rough companions who generallyknew litde about the life of the mind.

Mead often stressed that the formulation of the relation oflanguage to gesture

But, what theRomantic idealists insisted upon is that you cannot have an object without asubject

Darwin taught Mead and his associates to think in terms of process in-stead of fixed forms,

secular philosophy had strong and enduring roots in Puritan Christianity

American thinkers, among themmost early sociologists, who were reared in a strict Puritanical atmosphere butwho freed themselves from theological moorings, most often under the impactof Darwin's teaching

He was thoroughly at home in all the sub-fields of philosophy and its history and also kept himself abreast of develop-ments in the physical and biological as well as in the social sciences.

The son of many generations of Puritan theologians lost his faith in the dog-mas of the church.

In

preaching

uritan farmers and clergymen

Mead remained steadfast in his social objectivism.

fallacy of separateness," whichconsiders actors without reference to the interactions in which they are vari-ously engaged.

is notion of role-taking, that is, of tak-ing the attitudes of others toward oneself, is not to be confused with whatmodern sociologists call role performance, or living up to the expectations en-tailed by a specific position.

Mead valued personal auton-omy, but he saw it emerging from feedback rather than from attempts at in-sulation from others.

As a "me" the person is aware of himself as an object. He reacts orresponds to himself in terms of the attitudes others have toward him. His self-appraisal is the result of what he assumes to be the appraisal by others. The"me" is the self as conceived and apprehended in terms of the point of viewof significant others and of the community at large. It reflects the laws andthe mores, the organized codes and expectations of the community."^ The "I,"in contradistinction, is "the answer which the individual makes to the attitudewhich others take toward him when he assumes an attitude toward them . . .it gives the sense of freedom, of initiative.""®

he individualself is individual only because of its relation to others. Through the individual'sability to take in his imagination the attitudes of others, his self becomes anobject of his own reflection.

It is rather asocial entity emerging in a social process of development from simple con-versations of gestures to the process of identification with the "generalizedother." "The conscious self," Dewey comments on Mead's conception, "was tohim the world of nature first taken up into social relations and then dissolvedto form a new self which then went forth to recreate the world of nature andsocial institutions

With the help of the rules that govern the game, the child develops theability to take the place of all the other players and to determine their re-sponses.

But in a game in whicha number of individuals playing different roles are involved, in baseball forexample, "the child taking one role must be ready to take the role of everyoneelse."^®

sees

In this view, human communication becomes pos-sible only when "the symbol [arouses] in one's self what it arouses in theother individual."^*^

Experience is not first individual and then social.

Human communicativeprocesses involve the constant self-conscious adjustment of actors to the conductof others, a repeated fitting together of lines of action through definitions andredefinitions, interpretations and reinterpretation

ignificant gestures involving the use ofsymbols always presuppose the ability of each participant in a communicativeprocess to visualize his own performance from the standpoint of the others, totake the role of the others.

The behavior ofan individual can be understood only in terms of the behavior of the wholesocial group of which he is a member, since his individual acts are involved inlarger, social acts which go beyond himself and which implicate the othermembers of that group.'"^