O f the many t y p e s o f com municationin which the perform er e n g a g e s and which con v e y inform ationin c o m p atib le with the im pre ssio n o ffic ia lly m aintained duringin te r a c tio n , four t y p e s will be c o n s id e r e d : treatm ent o f thea b s e n t, s ta g in g ta lk , team c o llu s io n , and tem porary r ea lignm e nts

It may be r e p e a te dth a t no claim i s made th a t s u r re p tit io u s c o m m u n ic a tio n s areany more a r e fle c tio n of the re a l r e a lity than a re the o fficialco m m unication s with which they are i n c o n s i s t e n t ; the pointi s th a t th e perform er i s ty p ic a lly involved in both, and th isdual inv olvem ent must b e carefu lly m anaged l e s t o ffic ia lp r o je c tio n s be d i s c r e d ite d .

' w e a k 1

T h u s m others arein som e r e s p e c t s a c o lle a g u e grouping, and y e t ordinarily them is d e e d s of one, or her c o n f e s s io n s , do not seem to affectc l o s e l y the r e s p e c t th a t is a c co rd ed the other members. Onth e other hand, th e re are c o lle a g u e g ro u p in g s o f a morec o rp o ra te c h a r a c te r , w hose members are so c l o s e l y identifiedin the e y e s o f oth e r people th a t to so m e d eg re e the goodre puta tion of one p r a c titio n e r d e p e n d s on the good conduct ofth e o th e rs

R e n e g a d e s often take a moral sta n d , s a y in g that it isb e tte r to be tr u e to the id e a ls of the role th a n to the performerswho f a ls e ly p re se n t th e m s e lv e s in it. A d iffe ren t mode ofd isa ffe c tio n o c c u r s when a c o lle a g u e " g o e s n a t i v e ’ or becom esa b a c k slid e r, making no attem pt to m aintain th e kind of frontwhich h is auth o rized s t a t u s m a k es or le a d s h is c o l le a g u e sand th e au d ien c e to e x p e c t of him. Such d e v i a n ts a re s a id to' l e t down the s i d e . ’

o u d o n ’t cell on us and we won’t te ll on you

hid e from one an other c e r ta in th in g sth a t they hid from the a u d ien c e.

C o l le a g u e s may be defined a s p e rs o n s who p r e s e n t thes a m e routine to th e sam e kind of a u d ie n c e but who do notp a r ti c ip a te to g e th er, a s te am -m a tes do, at the sa m e tim e andp la c e before the sam e p a r tic u la r a u d ie n c e . C o lle a g u e s , >as it i ss a id , s h a re a community of face. In having to put on th e samekind of perform ance, they com e to know ea ch o th e r’s d if f i c u lt ie sand p o in ts of v i e w ; w hate v er th e ir to n g u e s, they com e to sp e akth e sa m e s o c ia l la n g u a g e .

C o n fid a n ts arep e r s o n s to whom th e performer c o n f e s s e s his s in s , freely,d e ta ilin g th e s e n s e in which t h e im pression given during aperform ance w a s merely an im p re ssio n . T y p ic a lly c o n f id a n tsare lo c a te d o u ts i d e and p a r tic ip a te only v ic a r io u s ly in backand front region a c tiv ity

remembering and forg e ttin g

r a in e r s tend to e v o k e for the performer a vividim age of h im self that he had r e p r e s s e d , a se lf-im ag e of som eone engaged in the clum sy and e m b a rra ssin g p r o c e s s ofbecoming.

r a i n i n g s p e c i a l i s t . ’ In d iv id u a ls who tak eth is role have the com plic ate d t a s k of te a c h in g the performerhow co build up a d e s ir a b le im p re ssio n w hile at the sametime taking the part of the future a u d ien c e and illu stratin gby p u n ish m en ts th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f im proprieties

individual involved in u nseem ly e n ta n g le m e n ts may ta k eh is tr o u b le s to a Negro law yer b e c a u s e of the sham e he mightle e l before a w hite one

We regularlyfind that c l ie n t s may reta in a s p e c i a l i s t not in order to obtainhelp with a show they are p u ttin g on for o th e rs but for thevery act that i s provided by having a s p e c i a l i s t attend them—e s p e c ia ll y if he h a s a higher general s t a t u s than his c l ie n ts

T h u s , for example,p s y c h o th e r a p i s ts who vic ario u sly p a r ti c ip a te s o widely inthe d o m e stic warfare of our tim e s are p led ged to rem ain s ile n tabout what they have le arn ed , e x c ep t to their s u p e rv is o rs.

th e s p e c i a l i s t d o e snot s h a re the risk, the guilt, and the s a t i s f a c t i o n of p r e s e n tin gbefore a n a u d ie n c e the show to which he h a s contributed.

S ervices p e c i a l i s t s are lik e mem bers of the team in th at th e y learnth e s e c r e t s o f the show and o b ta in a b a c k s ta g e view of it.

In suchs it u a ti o n s , the important show i s to show the o u tc a s t th a the i s b eing ignored, and the a c tiv ity th at i s c a r rie d on ino rd er to d e m o n strate t h is may i t s e l f be o f second aryim portance

In the c a s e of other s e rv a n t-lik er o le s in our s o c ie t y , su c h a s th a t o f e l e v a to r o p era to r andcab-driver, there s e e m s to be u n certainty on both s id e s ofthe r e la tio n sh ip a s to what kind of in tim a c ie s are p e rm issib lein the p r e s e n c e of the non-person

A further d is c r e p a n t role may be co n s id e re d , th at of the ’ non-p e r s o n ; ’ th o s e who p la y th is role are p r e se n t during thein te ra c tio n but do not, in a s e n s e , ta k e the role e i th e r ofperformer or of a u d ien c e, nor do they ( a s do informers, s h i l l s ,a n d s p o tt e r s ) pretend to be what they are not

uiding the sho w on thefactory floor on b e h a lf of th e m an agerial a u d ien c e, but hem ust a l s o t r a n s l a t e what he k n ow s and what the a u d ien c es e e s into a verbal lin e which h i s c o n s c ie n c e and the a u d ien c ewill be w illing to a c c e p t

p eak e rstend to a c c e p t in v it a ti o n s to s p e a k on the a s su m p tio n thatth e chairm an will ' t a k e care of them ,' which he d o e s bybeing the very model of a li s t e n e r and thoroughly confirmingt h e notion th a t the s p e e c h h a s real s ig n ific a n c e . T h e c h a irman’s perform ance i s e ffec tiv e partly b e c a u s e the l i s t e n e r shave an ob lig a tio n to him, an o b lig a tio n to confirm anydefin ition o f the s it u a ti o n which he spo nsors, an ob lig a tio n ,in short, to follow the lis te n in g -lin e th a t he ta k e s .

T he go-between canbe thought of sim ply a s a d ouble-shill

ejection

l e a v e s th e region when they do, but when h el e a v e s he g o e s to h is employer, a co m p etito r of the teamwhose perform ance he lias w itn e s s e d , to report what he h a sseen . lie i s the p ro fe ssio n a l sho pper—th e G im bel’s man inMacy's and the M acy’s man in Gimbel’s ; he is the fashionspy and the foreigner at N atio nal Air Meets

th e s ta n d a r d s th a t perform ers m aintain in order to e n s u rethat in som e r e s p e c t s fostere d a p p e a r a n c e s will not be toofar from r e a lity .

wife

A shill i s someonewho a c t s a s though he were an ordinary member of the aud ien c ebut i s in fact in le a g u e with the perform ers

a u d ien c e

mentioned

O u ts id e r s know n e ith e r the s e c r e t s of the perform ance north e a p p e a r a n c e of r e a lity fostered by it

T he a u d ie n c e knowwhat th e y have been allow ed to p erc eive , q u alified by whatthey can g le an u n o ffic ia lly by c l o s e o b se rv a tio n

P erform e rs area w a re of the im p re ssio n they fo ster and ordinarily a l s o p o s s e s sd e s tru c tiv e inform ation about the show

them

th o s e who perform ; th o s e performed t o ; arid o u ts i d e r swho n e ith e r perform in the show nor o b se rv e it

free

When th is i s :h e c a s e , su c h s e c r e t smay be d isc o v e re d or a c c id e n ta lly d is c lo s e d without r ad ic allyd isr u p tin g th e team perfo rm ance; th e perform ers need onlys h if t their s e c r e t d e lig h t to an other matter. Of c o u rse , s e c r e t st h a t are s t r a t e g i c a n d / o r dark s e rv e extrem ely well a s in sid es e c r e t s and we find, in fact, that the s tr a t e g ic and darkc h a r a c t e r of s e c r e t s i s often e x a g g e r a te d for t h is reason

In sid e s e c r e t s give o b je c tiv e in te lle c t u a l conten tto s u b j e c t i v e l y felt s o c ia l d i s t a n c e . Almost all informationin a s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n t h a s som e thing of this e x c lu sio n aryfunction and may be s e e n a s none of som ebody’s b u s in e s s

It may be addedth a t s e c r e t s th a t a r e merely s tr a t e g ic tend to be ones whichthe team e v e n tu a lly d i s c l o s e s , perforce, when ac tio n b a s e dupon s e c r e t p r e p a ra tio n s i s consum m ated, w h e r e a s an effortmay be made to keep dark s e c r e t s s e c r e t forever

Darks e c r e t s are, of course, double s e c r e t s : one is the crucialfact that is hidden and an o th er is the fact that crucial f a c tshave not been openly adm itted. Dark s e c r e t s were consideredin Chapter One in the se c tio n on m is re p re se n ta tio

A b a s ic problem for many perform ances, then,i s that of information c o n tro l; the a u d ien c e must not acquired e s tru c tiv e information ab o u t the situ a tio n that is beingdefined for them. In o th e r words, a team must be able tokeep i t s s e c r e t s and have its s e c r e t s kep

but rather trea ted a s if he were not there a t all or q u iteu ncerem oniously a s k e d to s ta y out

Rarely can th is be done smoothly enough toprese rve the new com er’s illu s io n that the show su d d e n ly puton i s th e perform er’s natu ral show. And eve n if th is ismanaged, the a u d ie n c e already p r e s e n t i s likely to feel thatwhat they had been tak in g for the perform er’s e s s e n t i a l s e lfw as not so e s s e n t i a l

f course, if w a lls s e p a r a tethe cwo a u d ie n c e s , the performer ca n s u s t a i n the im p re ssio n she is fostering by darting rapidly from one region to another.T h is sta g in g d ev ice , p o s s i b le with tw o examining rooms, isin c re a sin g ly popular among American d e n t is ts and doctors

And, on the sa m e grounds, just;is it is co n v e n ie n t to play o n e 's different ro u tin e s beforelifferent p e r so n s, so a l s o is it convenient to s e p a r a te thedifferent a u d i e n c e s one h a s for the sam e routine, s i n c e thati s th e only way in which each a u d i e n c e can feel th a t whilethere may be o th e r a u d i e n c e s for the sam e rou tine, none isg e ttin g so d e s ir a b le a p r e se n ta tio n o| it. Here again frontregion control is important

amely, th e o n e which th eperform ers or the a u d ie n c e would ordinarily p r e se n t beforeth e o u t s i d e r s at a time and p la c e when the o u ts i d e r s wouldbe th e a n tic ip a te d a u d ien c e

t must be allow ed thatone can become so h a b itu ated to o n e ’s front region a c tiv ityand front region c h a r a c t e r that it may be n e c e s s a r y to h a n d leo n e ’s rela xation from it as a perform ance. One may feelobliged, when b a c k s ta g e , to a c t out of c h a r a c t e r in a fam iliarfash io n and th is can com e to be more of a p o se than theperform ance for which it w as meant to provide a re la x a tio n

dec o ro u s.

hus the higher o n e’s p la c e in the s t a t u s pyramid,th e sm a lle r the number of p e rs o n s with whom one can befamiliar, 1 the l e s s tim e one sp e n d s b a c k sta g e , and th e mor

When they arrive, of course , they find their newsitu a tio n h a s u n a n tic ip a te d s im ila r it ie s with their old o n e ;both involve a p r e s e n ta tio n of front to an a u d ie n c e and bothinvo lve the p r e se n te r in the grubby, g o ssip y b u s i n e s s ofsta g in g a show.

o f b a c k s ta g e behaviour

Often it s e e m s th a t w hatever e n th u sia smand lively in te r e s t we have at our d i s p o s a l we r e s e rv e fort h o s e before whom we are putting on a show and th a t thes u r e s t sig n of b a c k s ta g e s o lid a rity is to feel th a t it is sa feto l a p s e into an a s s o c i a b l e mood of su llen , sile n t irritability

Three common lim ita tio n s on b a c k sta g e informalitymay be cited . F irs t, when th e a u d ie n c e is not p rese n t, e a c hmember of the team i s lik ely to want to s u s t a i n the im pressionth a t lie can be tru ste d with th e s e c r e t s of the team and thathe is not likely to play his part badly when the aud ien c e ispresen t. While ea ch team member will want the audien ce tothink of him a s a worthy ch a ra c te r, he is lik e ly to want h isteam -m ates to think of him a s a loyal, w ell-d iscip lin edperformer. Secondly, there are often moments b a c k sta g ewhen the perform ers will have to s u s t a i n one a n o th e r ’s moraleand maintain the im pressio n that the show that is about tobe p re se n te d will go over well or that the show that h a s justbee n prese n ted did not really go over so badly. T hirdly, ifth e team c o n t a in s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of fundamental so c iald iv is io n s, suc h a s different ag e -g ra d es, different ethnicgroups, e tc ., then some d isc re tio n a ry lim its will prevail onfreedom of b a c k s ta g e ac tivity. Here, no doubt, the mostimportant d iv isio n is the se xual one, for th e re s e e m s to beno s o c ie t y in which members of the two s e x e s , however c lo s e lyre la te d , do not s u s t a i n some a p p e a r a n c e s before ea ch other.In America, for in sta n c e , we learn the following about WestC o a st s h ip y a rd s

s t y l e s .

egion co nduct i s one which d is a llo w s such p o te n tia llyo ffe n siv e behaviour.

Throughout our so c ie ty there te n d s to be one informal orb a c k s ta g e lan g u ag e o f behaviour, and an o th er lan g u ag e ofbehaviour for o c c a s i o n s when a perform ance is being p re se n te d

T h u s the private office of an e x e c u tiv e isc e rta in ly the front region where his s t a t u s in the o rg a n iz a tio ni s in te n s iv e ly e x p r e s s e d by m eans of the quality of his officefu rn ish in g s. And yet it is here th at he ca n ta k e h is ja c k e toff, lo o se n h i s tie, keep a bottle of liquor handy, and act ina chummy and even b o is te r o u s way with fellow e x e c u t iv e sof h is own rank.

T h e d e c o r a tio n s an d permanent fix tu re s in a p la c e wherea p a r tic u la r perform ance is u s u a lly given, a s well a s theperform ers and perform ance u s u a lly found in it, tend to fix akin d of s p e l l over i t ; even w hen the custom ary perform ancei s not being given in it, the p la c e te n d s to retain so m e ofi t s front region ch a ra c te r.

Another a r e a is s u g g e s te d by the veryw idespread tendency in our s o c iety to give perform ers controlover the p la c e in which they a tte n d to what are c a lle dbiological n e e d s.

F irs t, we often find th a t control of b a c k s ta g e p la y s asig n ific a n t role in th e p r o c e s s of 'w o rk c o n t r o l ’ wherebyl de Beauvoir, op. c i L , p. 54 J.70

Very commonly the back region of a performance is lo c a te dat one end of the place where the performance i s p rese n ted ,being cut off from it by a p a rtitio n and guarded p a s sa g e w a y

A back region or b a c k s ta g e may be defined a s a p la c e ,r e la tiv e to a given perform ance, where the im pression f o ste re dby the perform ance i s knowingly co n tradicted a s a m a tte r ofco urse .

While in church, a womanmay be perm itted to s it, daydream, and even d o z e ; a s as a lesw o m a n on the floor of a d r e s s shop, she may be requiredto stand , keep alert, refrain from chew ing gum, keep a fixedsm ile on her f a c e even when not ta lk in g to anybody andwear c l o t h e s she ca n ill afford

It may be noted that the part of p ersonal front we havec a l l e d ' m a n n e r ’ will be im portant in regard to p o lit e n e s sand th at the part we have c a lle d ’ a p p e a r a n c e ’ will be important in regard to decorum

nstrumental requirem ents a re not e n d s in thems e l v e s and presumably refer to d u tie s such a s an employermight demand of his employe.es—ca re of property, m aintenanceof work le v e ls , e tc

Moral requirem ents aree n d s in th e m s e lv e s and presum ably refer to ru les regardingnon-interference and non-m olestation of o th e rs, r u le s regarding s e x u a l propriety, r u le s regarding r e s p e c t for s a c r e dp la c e s , etc.

Onegrouping h as to do with the way in which the performer t r e a tsthe a u d ie n c e while engaged in tall: with them or in g e s tu ra lin te r c h a n g e s that are a s u b s t itu te for talk. These s ta n d a r d sare so m etim es referred to a s m a tte rs of p o lit e n e s s . T he othergroup of s ta n d a r d s h as to do with the way in which th e performer com ports himself while in visual or aural range of theaud ien c e but not n e c e s s a r ily engaged in talk with them.I sh a ll u s e the term decorum to refer to t h is seco nd groupof s ta n d a rd s, although some e x c u s e s and some q u a lif ic a tio n swill have to be added to justify the u sa g e

o, too, the show m a inta in ed on the floor of a shop ty p ic allyin v o lv e s s e v e r a l foci of verbal in te raction, each com posedof a tte n d a n t-c u sto m e r p airs

However, in taking on the role of a performer, th eindividual n e e d not c e a s e to devote some o f his effort tonon-dram aturgical c o n c ern s, that is, to th e activity its e lfo f which th e perform ance offe rs an a c c e p ta b le dram atization

In gen eral, wefind th a t t h o s e who help p r e se n t a team -perform ance differin the d e g re e o f dram atic d o m inan ce given e a c h of them andth a t one team -ro utine diffe rs from an o ther in the e x te n t towhich d if f e r e n tia ls in d om inance a re given i t s members

he d ire c to r is likelyto resp o n d to t h i s r e s p o n s ib ility by making dram aturgicald em a n d s on th e performance that chey might not make uponth e m s e lv e s . This may add to th e e s tra n g e m e n t they mayalre ad y feel from him. A director, h en c e, s ta r t in g a s a memberof th e team, may find him self slow ly edged into a marginalrole betw e en a u d ie n c e and perform ers, h a lf in and half out ofboth cam ps, a kind of go-betw een w ithout the p rotec tion thatg o -b e tw e e n s u s u a lly have. T h e factory foreman h a s beena r e c e n tly d i s c u s s e d example.

S econdly, the d irec tor may be given the s p e c ia l duty ofa l lo c a tin g th e p a r ts in the perform ance and the personal frontthat i s em ployed in ea ch part, for each e s ta b lis h m e n t maybe s e e n a s a p la c e with a number of c h a r a c t e r s to d is p o s eo f to p r o s p e c tiv e performers and a s an a s s e m b l a g e of signequipment or cerem onial p ara p h ern alia to be a llo c a te d

Often, of co u rse , th e d irec tor will not s o much hav e to smotherimproper affec t as he will have to stim u la te a show of properaffec tiv e in vo lv e m e n

i r s t , th e direc to r may be given th e s p e c i a l duty of bringing baclc into line any member of the team w hose perform ancebecom es u n s u ita b le

important

T h e obv io u s point muse be sta te d chat if th e team is cos u s t a i n che im p re ssio n chat ic i s fostering , then chere mustbe som e a s s u r a n c e that no individual will be allow ed tojoin boch team and a u d ie n c e

In many im portant s o c i a l s it u a ti o n s ,how ever, th e s o c ia l s e ttin g in w hich the in te ra c tio n o c c u rsis a s s e m b l e d and m anaged by one of the t e a m s only, andc o n t r i b u te s in a more intim ate way to the show th is teamp u ts on than to thfe show put on in r e s p o n s e by the otherteam.

T h u s, in larges o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts , where se v e ra l different s t a t u s grade sprevail, we find that for the duration of any particular interaction, p a r ti c ip a n ts of many d ifferent s t a t u s e s are ty pic allye x p e cted to alig n th e m s e lv e s temporarily into two team groupi n g s.

Similarly,th o s e who are known to become in to x ic a te d when drink isa v a ila b le and who become verbose or ' d ifficult ’ when chiso c c u r s c o n s titu t e a perform ance risk, a s do those who areso b e r but foolishly in d is c r e e t, and th ose who re fu se to ' e n t e rinto th e s p i r i t ’ of the o c c a s io n and help s u s ta in the im pressionthat the g u e s t s ta c itly u n ite in maintaining to the h o st

And, of c o u r s e , this kind of s o lid a rityin the p r e s e n c e o f s u b o r d in a t e s a l s o o c c u rs when perform ersa re in the p r e s e n c e of su p e ro r d in a te s

T o withhold froma te aii-m a te information about the s ta n d h is team i s takingi s to w ithhold his c h a r a c te r from him, for without knowingwhat sta nd he will be ta k in g he may not be a b l e to a s s e r t as e lf to th e au d ien c e

In other words, in s ta g in ga definitio n of the situ atio n , it may be n e c e s s a r y for th ese v e r a l m em bers of the team to be unanim ous in the p o s it io n sth e y ta k e and s e c r e ti v e about th e fact that t h e s e p o s itio n sw ere noc in d e p en d e n tly arrived at.

It se e m s to be g enerally felt th a t pub lic d isa g re em entamong the members of the team not only in c a p a c i t a t e s themlor united action but a l s o e m b a r ra s s e s the r e a lity spo nso redby the team. To protect th is im pre ssion of rea lity, membersof the team may be required to postpon e taking public s ta n d suntil the p o sitio n of th e team has been s e t t l e d ; and oncethe te am ’s sta n d h a s been tak en, all members may be obligedto follow it.

O ther m eansto e n d s , s u c h a s fo rce o r b arg a in in g power, may be in c r e a s e dor d e c r e a s e d by s t r a t e g i c m a n ipula tion of im p r e s s io n s , butt h e e x e r c i s e of f o rc e or barg a in in g pow er g iv e s to a s e t ofin d iv i d u a l s a s o u r c e of group formation u n c o n n e c te d withthe fact th a t on c e r ta in o c c a s i o n s t h e group th u s formed i sl i k e l ^ t o a c t, d r a m a tu r g ic a lly sp e a k in g , a s -a te am

nformal ag re e m e n t i s not a criterio n for defining thec o n c e p t of team

Similarly, agirl a t a party who is flagrantly a c c e s s i b l e may be sh unnedby th e other g irls who a r e p r e s e n t, but in c e r ta in m a tte rs sh eis part of th e ir team and c a n n o t fail to th rea ten the d efin itio nthey are c o l le c tiv e ly m a in ta in in g th a t g ir ls a re d ifficu lt s e x u a lp r iz e s .

mong te am -m a tes , th ep riv ile g e of f a m ilia rity —which may c o n s titu t e a kind of intim acywithout warm th—nee d not be s o m e th in g of an organic kind,slow ly d ev e lo p in g with the p a s s a g e o f tim e s p e n t to ge th er,but rath e r a formal r e la tio n s h i p th a t i s a u to m a tic a lly e x te n d e dan d r e c e iv e d a s soon a s the in dividual t a k e s a p la c e on th eteam

th e y will hardly be in a p o sitio n to m aintainthat p a r ti c u la r im p r e s s io n before o n e another

Where s ta f f a n d lin e s t a t u s e s tend to d iv id ean o rg a n iz a tio n , perform ance t e a m s may te n d to in te g ra tet h e d iv is io n s

E ac h team -m ate i s forced to rely on t h e good conduct andb e ha viour o f h i s fello w s, and they, in turn, a r e forced to relyon him

h i s p o s s i b i l i t y l e a d s u s to c o n s id e r a further o n e. T h eind iv id u al may p r iv a te ly m aintain s t a n d a r d s of b ehaviour whichhe d o e s not p e r s o n a lly b e l ie v e in, m a in ta in in g t h e s e s t a n d a r d sb e c a u s e of a liv e ly b e l ie f that an u n s e e n a u d i e n c e i s p r e s e n twhich will p u n ish d e v i a ti o n s from t h e s e s ta n d a r d s . In o th e rwords, an ind iv id u al may be h i s own a u d i e n c e or may im a g in ean a u d i e n c e to be p r e s e n

Given t h i s point of refe re n c e ,it i s p o s s i b l e to a s s i m i l a t e su c h s i t u a t i o n s a s tw o-personi n te r a c tio n into th e framework by d e s c r ib in g t h e s e s i t u a t i o n sa s tw o-team in te ra c tio n in w hich ea ch team c o n t a i n s only o n emember

an em ergent team im p re ssio n a r i s e s whichcan c o n v e n ie n tly be tr e a te d a s a fact in i t s own right, a s athird le v el of fact lo c a te d betw e en th e in d iv id u a l perform anceon one hand and th e to ta l in te ra c tio n of p a r ti c ip a n ts on th eother.

hen o u t s i d e r s ace p r e s e n t , th e to u ch o( b u s i n e s s l i k e formality i se v e n more im portant. You may c a l l your s e c re ta ry ' M a r y ' a n d y o u tp a r t n e r ' J o e * all d ay , bu t when a str a n g e r c o m es inn) your office yoush ou ld t efet to your a s s o c i a t e s a s you would e x p e c t the s t r a n g e r toa d d r e s s t h e m : M is s or Mr- You may h av e a r u nn ing jo k e w i t h thesw it c h b o a rd o p e r a t o r, but you let :t ride when you ar e p l a c i n g a callin an o u t s i d e r ' s h e a r in

In g en e ral, th en, a s e t o f in d iv id u a ls who c o -o p e ra te in s ta g in ga s in g l e r o u tin e may be referred to a s a perform ance teamor, in sh o rt, a team

When s h e a s s u m e s a re sp e c tfu l role, hecan a s s u m e a dom inant o n e ; and when ea ch member of them arriag e team p l a y s i t s s p e c ia l role, the co n ju g al unit, a s aunit, c a n s u s t a i n t h e im p re ssio n th a t new a u d i e n c e s e x p e c tof it.

B ut m ost im po rtant o f a ll, we commonly find that th e d efin ition of t h e s it u a ti o n p r o je c te d by a p a r ti c u la r p a r tic ip a n t i san in te g ra l p art o f a p ro je c tio n th a t i s f o s te r e d and s u s t a in e dby t h e in tim a te c o -o pe ra tion of more than o n e p a rtic ip a n t,and, m oreover, that ea ch member o f suc h a tro u p e or c a s tof p la y e r s may be req u ired to a p p e a r in a different light ifth e te a m ’ s o v e ra ll effec t i s to be s a t i s f a c t o r y .

sc o p e

product

h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the t a s k th a t i s perform edan d not t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e perform e

In th in king abo u t a perform ance it i s e a s y to a s s u m e th a tthe c o n te n t of t h e p r e s e n ta tio n i s merely an e x p r e s s i v e exte n sio n of th e c h a r a c t e r of th e perform er and to s e e th e functionof th e p erfo rm an ce in t h e s e p e rso n a l term s

h e s e in h ib i tio n s o f thea u d i e n c e allow th e perform er som e elbow-room in buildingup an im p r e s s ip n o f h i s own c h o i c e and allow him to function,for h i s own good or the a u d i e n c e ’ s, a s a pro tec tio n or a threatth a t c l o s e i n s p e c t io n would d es tro

A s p h e re of t h i s s o r t i s p l a c e d aroundman by h i s ' h o n o r . 1 L a n g u a g e very po ig n an tly d e s i g n a t e s an i n s u l tto o n e s honor a s 'c o m i n g too c l o s e : ’ the r a d i u s of t h i s s p h e r e m arks,a s it w er e, t h e d i s t a n c e w h o s e t r e s p a s s i n g by an o th e r p e r s o n i n s u l t so n e ' s honor.

prohibit the a u d ie n c e from lo ok inga t the performer at all, and at tim e s when c e le s c ia l q u a l i t i e sand pow ers have been claim ed by a performer, t h i s lo g ic alco n c lu sio n s e e m s to hav e been put into effect

If we s e e p e r c e p tio n a s a form of c o n t a c t and communion,»c con tro l o v e r what i s p e rc eiv e d i s con tro l over c o n ta c tth a t i s mr.J-

B e c a u s eof th e s e s h a re d dram atic c o n t in g e n c ie s , we ca n profitablystu d y p erfo rm an ce s th a t a re quite f a ls e in order to learn abouto n e s that a re q u ite h o n e s

c o n c e a l

With s u c hs t r a t e g i c a l l y lo c a te d p o i n t s of r e ti c e n c e , it i s p o s s i b l e tom aintain a d e s ir a b le status quo in the r e la tio n s h ip w ithouth a v in g to ca rry out rigidly th e im p l ic a tio n s of t h i s ag re e m e n tin all a r e a s of life

h e la rg e r t h e number of m a tte rs an d th e la rg e rth e number o f a c tin g p a r ts which fall within th e domain of thero le or r e la tio n s h i p , the more lik e lih o o d , it would seem , forp o in ts o f s e c r e c y to e x i s t.

Although p a r ti c u la r p erfo rm an ce s,a n d even p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s or r o u tin e s , may p l a c e a perform erin a p o sitio n of h aving nothing to h id e , so m ew here in thefull round of h is a c t i v i t i e s th e re will b e so m e th in g h e c a n n o tt r e a t o p e n ly

We find th at c h a r la ta n p ro fe s s io n a l a c tiv ityo f o n e d e c a d e b ec o m e s an a c c e p t a b l e le g itim a te o c c u p a tio nin th e next. 3 We find th a t a c t i v i t i e s which a r e thought tobe l e g itim a te by so m e a u d i e n c e s in our s o c ie ty are thoughtby o th e r a u d i e n c e s to be r a c k e ts

F u rth e r, in e v e ry d ay li f e it i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e forthe perform er to c r e a te in te n tio n a lly a lm o st any kind o f f a l s eim p re ssio n without pu ttin g h im s e lf tn th e in d e f e n s ib le p o sitio no f having told a c l e a r - c u t lie . Com m unication t e c h n iq u e ssuch a s innuendo, s t r a t e g i c am bigu ity, an d crucial o m is s io n sa llow th e m isinform er to profit from l i e s w ithout, te c h n ic a l ly ,te llin g any

t i s f e lt to be all right for im m ig ran ts toim p e r s o n a te n a t iv e A m eric an s in d r e s s and in p a t t e r n s ofdecorum but £a«L it is s t i l l a doubtful m atter to A m eric an iz eo n e ’s n a m e 2 or o n e ’s n o s e

F u r t h e r

r e a l l y .

la im s tob e a law g r a d u a te ca n b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s valid or invalid, butc laim s to be a friend, a true b e lie v e r, or a m usic lo v e r can beconfirmed or d isc onfirm ed only m o re-o r-le ss.

we may h a v e some sym pathy for th o s ewho hav e but o n e fata l flaw an d who attem pt to c o n c e a l thefac t th a t they are, for exam ple, e x - c o n v ic ts , deflow ered,e p i le p t ic or r a c ia ll y impure, i n s t e a d of adm itting th e ir faultand making an ho n o u rab le attem pt to liv e it down

Mythology and our popularm a g a z in e s , in fa c t, are full o f rom antic s t o r i e s in w hich th ev illa in and the hero both make fraud ulent c l a i m s that ared is c r e d ite d in th e l a s t ch a p te r, the v illa in p roving not to hav ea high s t a t u s , th e hero proving not to h a v e a low one

a u th o riz a tio n to play a part and th e c a p a c ity to play it

hen we d i s c o v e r th a t som e on e with whom we h a v ed e a l i n g s i s a n im p o s to r and out-and-out fraud, we are d i s c o v e rin g th a t he did not hav e th e right to play th e part he p la y e d ,th a t he w a s n o t an a c c r e d i te d incum bent o f the r e le v a n t s t a t u s

We often feel that it i s ju s t t h e s e te rrib le ev e n tu a l i t i e s , which a r i s e from being c a u g h t out, flagrante delicto,in a p a t e n t a c t o f m is re p re s e n t a ti o n , th a t an h o n e s t perform eri s a b l e t o avo id . T h i s c o m m o n -se n se view h a s lim ite d a na l y t i c a l u tility .

s mem bers o f t h e a u d i e n c e i t i s natural for u s to feelth a t th e im p re ssio n th e perform er s e e k s to g iv e may be trueo r f a l s e , g en u in e or s p u rio u s, v alid or ' p h o n y .

s h e s t r i v e s ro identify h e r s e l f with t h i s figure an dt h u s to se em t o h e r s e l f to be s t a b i l i z e d , j u s t i f i e d in her sple n do r

A c e r ta in b u re a u c ra tiz a tio n of thes p i r i t i s e x p e c t e d s o that we can be relied upon to give ap e rfe c tly h o m o g e n e o u s perform ance at every ap p o in te d time.A s S a n ta y a n a s u g g e s t s , t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s not onlytr a n s f ig u r e s , it f i x e s

In oth e r w ords, .we must be p repared to s e e th a t the im p re ssio nof r e a lity f o s te r e d by a perform ance i s a d e l ic a te , fra gile th in gt h a t can be s h a t t e r e d by very minor m is h a p s

nglo-Am erican s o c ie t y must often p a s s a s tr ic tt e s t of a p t n e s s , f i t n e s s , propriety, .and decorum

from in a d e q u a te dram aturgicalilirection

m p re ssio n th a t he i s to o much ortoo l i t t l e c o n c e rn e d with the in te r a c tio n

him self.

h r e e rough g ro u p in g s o f t h e s e e v e n t s may bem e ntio ned.

It h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d th a t th e perform er c a n rely uponh is a u d ie n c e to a c c e p t minor c u e s a s a sign of som ethingim portant about h i s perform ance. T h i s c o n v e n ie n t fa c t h a s anin c o n v e n ie n t im plica tio n . By v irtu e of th e same sig n -ac ce p cin gten d en c y , th e a u d ie n c e may m is u n d e r s ta n d th e m eaning th a t ac u e w a s d e s ig n e d to con vey, or may r e a d an e m b a rra ssin gm eaning into g e s t u r e s or e v e n t s that were a c c i d e n t a l , ina d v e r te n t, in c id e n t a l or not meant by the perform er co carryany m eaning w h ats o ev e r

In our com m ercial lif e t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i co f p e rfo rm a n c e s h a s b een e x p lo ite d a n d maligned u nder th erubric ' p e r s o n a l i z e d s e r v i c e ; ’ in o th e r a r e a s of life we makej o k e s about ' t h e b e d - s id e m a n n e r ’ o r ' t h e g la d h a n d .

h e a u d i e n c e ca n s e e a g r e a t s a v in g of tim e and em otionalenergy in th e righ t to tr e a t th e performer a t o c c u p a tio n a lfa e e - v a lu e , a s if t h e perform er w ere all a n d on ly what h i suniform c la im e d him to be.

S im ilarly, m edical s c h o o l s in Am erica te n d torec ru it th eir s t u d e n t s partly on the b a s i s o f e t h n i c orig in s,an d c e r ta in ly p a t ie n t s , c o n s id e r t h i s fac to r in c h o o s in g th e ird o c t o r s ; but in t h e a c tu a l in te r a c t io n betw e en d o c to r andp a tie n t the im p re ssio n i s a l lo w e d to d e v e lo p that th e d o ctori s . a d octor b e c a u s e o f s p e c i a l a p t i t u d e s a s well a s s p e c ia ltraining .

clergym en g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t they e n te r e d th e churchb e c a u s e o f a c a ll o f fe lt v o c a tio n , in America te nding toc o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in moving up s o c i a l l y , in B rita in te ndingto c o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in not moving to o far down

Reinforcing t h e s e id e a l i m p r e s si o n s we find a kin d of ' r h e t o r i c of tr a in in g ,' w hereby labourunions, u n i v e r s i t i e s , tr a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s , and o th e r l i c e n s in gb o d ie s re q u ire p r a c t i t i o n e r s to a b s o rb a m y s t ic a l rang e andp e rio d of train in g , in p a rt to maintain a monopoly, but inpart to f o s te r th e im p r e s s io n th a t th e l i c e n c e d p r a c titio n e ri s som eone s e t a p a r t from o th e r me

d e a l m o tiv e s for a c q u irin g the role in whichth e y are perform ing, th a t th e y have id e a l q u a l if ic a tio n s fort h e role, an d th a t it w a s not n e c e s s a r y for them to su ffe ran y in d ig n i tie s , in s u l t s , an d h u m ilia tio n s, or make an y ta c it ly -u n d e rsto o d ' d e a l s , ' in o rd er to a c q u ire th e role.

s e r v i c e .

fourth

T h ird ly

econdly

F i r s t ,

book

It h a s beens u g g e s t e d t h a t th e sa m e so rt of beh aviour, which we may referto a s ‘ s e c r e t c o n s u m p t i o n ’, ca n be found am ong the H indus.

In a s e n s e su c h i m p r e s s i o n s a re i d e a li z e d , too, for if th eperform er i s to b e s u c c e s s f u l h e m u st offer th e kin d of s c e n eth a t r e a l i z e s t h e o b s e r v e r s ’ extrem e s t e r e o t y p e s o f h a p l e s spov erty

I h a v e been told by S h e tla n d e r s th a t theic g ra n d f a th e rsu s e d to refrain from improving t h e a p p e a r a n c e of th e c o t ta g ele sc th e la ir d ta k e suc h im p rov em ents a s a sig n th a t in c r e a s e dr e n t s could be e x t r a c te d from them

m erica w h o se m em bers h a v e felt th a tsome a s p e c t o f every p erfo rm an ce o u g h t to play down thee x p r e s s io n o f s h e e r w ealth in o rd er to f o ste r th e im p re ssio nth a t s ta n d a r d s reg a rd in g birth, c u ltu r e , or moral e a r n e s t n e s sa r e t h e o n e s th a t p r e v a i

not in d iv id u a ls , but a l s o a so n e in w hich p e rf o rm a n c e s te n d to e s t a b l i s h favourable c l a i m sre g a rd in g n o n-m aterial v a l u e s

h e p ro p e r s ig n -eq u ip m en t h a s bee n o b ta in e d and fam iliarityg a in e d in t h e m an ag e m en t of it, then t h i s equipm ent c a n beu s e d to e m b e llis h and illu m in e o n e ’s daily p e rfo rm a n c e s w itha fa v o u r a b le s o c ia l s ty le

Commonly we find that upward mobility in v o lv e s th e p r e s e n tatio n of proper p erform ances and that effo rts to move upwardand e ffo rts to keep from moving downward a re e x p r e s s e d inte rm s of s a c r i f i c e s made for the m a in te n a n c e of front.

iis p erform ance will te n d to in c o rp o rate and exemplify th eo ffic ia lly a c c r e d i te d v a l u e s ot th e s o c ie t y , more so , in fact,limn d o e s h i s behavio ur a s a whole.

T h e a r i s t o c r a t i c h ab it, •ith a s b een s a id , i s one th a t m o b il iz e s all t h e minor a c t i v i t i e s ofl i f e w hich fall o u t s i d e th e s e r io u s s p e c i a l i t i e s of o th e r c l a s s e sa n d i n j e c t s in to t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s an e x p r e s s io n of c h a r a c t e r ,pow er, and high rank

he w ill be c o n c e r n e d not so much with th e full roundof t h e d if fe r e n t r o u t i n e s he perform s but only w ith th e o n efrom which h i s o c c u p a t io n a l r e p u ta tio n d e r iv e s .

When we e x a m in e a group or c l a s s , we find th a t them em bers o f it tend to in v e s t th e ir e g o s primarily in c e r ta inr o u tin e s , g ivin g l e s s s t r e s s to th e o th e r o n e s w hich th e y p e rform.

T h o s e who hav e th e time and ta len t to performa t a s k well may not, b e c a u s e of th is , h av e the tim e or ta le n tto make it apparenc that they are perform ing well.

T h u s to furnish a h o u s e so that it will e x p r e s s sim ple, qu ietdignity, th e h o u s e h o ld e r may h a v e to r a c e to a u c tio n s a l e s ,h a g g l e with a n tiq u e d e a le rs , an d doggedly c a n v a s s a ll th elo c al s h o p s for proper w allp ap e r an d cu rta in m a te ria ls

M erchan ts, too, often findth a t they must cha rge hig h p r i c e s for th in g s that look intrins i c a l l y e x p e n s iv e in order to c o m p e n s a te the e s ta b l is h m e n tfor e x p e n s iv e t h in g s lik e in s u r a n c e , s la c k p erio d s, e tc ., thatnever a p p e a r before th e c u s to m e rs ’ e y

he n u r s e s a r e “ w a s t i n g r i m e 0 u n l e s s they a r e d a r t i n g ab ou td oin g so m e v i s i b l e t h i n g s u c h a s a d m i n i s t e r i n g h y p o d e r m i

In many c a s e s , h ow ever, d r a m a tiz a tio n o f o n e 's work d o e sc o n s t i t u t e a problem .

h e must give an i n s t a n t a n e o u sd e c i s i o n so th a t th e a u d i e n c e will b e s u r e th a t h e i s s u r e o fh i s jud g e m en

confirm atory f a c ts th a t might o th e rw is e rem ain un-ap p a re n t or o b s c u r e .

but su c h e x c l u s i v e u s e ofsign equipm ent i s the e x c e p tio n rath er than the rule

found

D ental Corp’s c a p t a i n s , many of them of a tow e th n ic origin,c ou ld h a v e b e e n g iv e n a rank th a t would p e r h a p s hav e beenmore s u i t a b l e in the e y e s of t h e Army than the c a p t a i n c i e sthey w ere a c t u a l l y giv en

An i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e dilem m a of s e l e c t i n g ana p p r o p r ia te front from s e v e r a l not q uite f ittin g o i'e s may befound to d a y in A m erican m e d ic a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s with r e s p e c t toth e t a s k o f a d m in is t e r in g a n e s t h e s i a

T h u s , when a ta s k i sg ive n a new front we seldom find that the front it is g iv e n isi t s e l f new

As a com prom ise, th e full ran g e of d iv e rs ity is cutat a few crucial p o in ts , and all t h o s e w ithin a given brac ketare allo w ed or o b lig e d to m a in ta in the sam e s o c ia l front ince r ta in s it u a t i o n

will be perform ed in what h a s becom e a s ta n d a r d iz e d , c l i n i c a l ,c o n f id e n tia l manner.

r o v id e s u s w ith a m e a n s of s timu la tin g our i n t e r e s t in and a t te n t io n to e x c e p t i o n s

d e al type

d r e s s e d in th e g arm e n ts o f a high p o s it io n p r e s e n t s h im s e lf toan in d iv id u al of ev e n higher s t a t u s

anger

A p p e a r a n c e ’ may be ta k e n to refer tot h o s e stim uli which function at th e tim e to tell u s of th eperform er’s s o c ia l s t a t u s e s . T h e s e stimuli also te ll u s o fth e i n d i v i d u a l 's tem porary ritu a l s t a t e , th a t i s , w hether he i se n g a g in g in formal s o c ia l a c tiv i ty , work, or informal re c re a tio n ,w h eth e r or not he is c e le b r a tin g a new p h a s e in the s e a s o nc y c le or in h is lif e -c y c le . ' M a n n e r ' may be ta k e n to refer toth o s e stim uli w hich fu n ction at the tim e to warn u s of th e intera c tio n ro le th e performer will e x p e c t to play in th e on-comings it u a ti o n .

p e r s o n a l f r o n t ’ torefer to the oth e r ite m s of e x p r e s s i v e e q u ip m en t, th e ite m s th a twe most in tim a te ly id e n tify with th e perform er him s elf and th atwe n a t u r a lly e x p e c t will follow t h e perform er w herever he g o e s .As part of p e r s o n a l front we may i n c l u d e : in s ig n ia of o ffic e orr a n k ; c l o t h i n g ; s e x , age, and r a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; s i z e andl o o k s ; p o s t u r e ; s p e e c h p a t t e r n s ; f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n s ; bodil

ro n t, th e n , i s th e e x p r e s s i v e e quipm ent of as ta n d a r d kind i n t e n t io n a lly or unw ittin g ly em ployed by theind iv id u al during h is perform ance. F or p relim in ary p u r p o s e s , itv.ill be c o n v e n ie n t to d i s t i n g u i s h and la b e l what s e e m to be thesta n d aril p a r t s of fron

v a lid .

Another il l u s t r a t i o n maybe found in th e raw re c ru it who in it ia l ly fo llo w s army e t iq u e t tein o rd e r to a v oid p h y s ic a l punish m en t and who e v e n tu a lly co m esto follow th e r u l e s s o th a t h is o r g a n iz a tio n will not be sh a m e dand h i s o f f i c e r s a n d f e ll o w - s o ld i e r s will r e s p e c t him

t h e s e a r e c y n i c a l perform ers w hosea u d i e n c e s will not a llow them to be s in c e r e . Similarly, we findth a t s y m p a th e tic p a t i e n t s in m ental w ards will s o m e tim e s feignb iz a r re sym ptom s so th a t s tu d e n t n u r s e s will not be s u b je c t e dto a d is a p p o in ti n g ly s a n e perform ance. 1 So a ls o , when inferi o r s e x ten d th e ir most la v is h r e c e p tio n for v i s i tin g s u p e rio r s ,th e s e l f i s h d e s i r e to win favour may not be the c h i e f m o tiv e;the inferio r may be ta c tf u lly attem p tin g to put the su p e rio r ate a s e by s im u la tin g the kind of world the s u p e r io r i s thought tota k e for gran ted

A c y n i c a l in d ividual mayd elu d e h i s a u d i e n c e for what he c o n s i d e r s to be th e ir own good,or for the good o f the com munity, e t c .

It shou ld be u n d e rsto o d th a t th e c y n ic , witha ll h i s p r o f e s s io n a l d isin v o lv e m e n t, may o b ta in u n p r o fe s s io n a lp l e a s u r e s from his m a sq u e ra d e , e x p e r ie n c in g a kind of gleefuls p ir itu a l a g g r e s s io n from th e fac t that h e c a n toy a t will withsom ething h i s a u d i e n c e m ust ta k e s e r i o u s l y

C o u p led with th i s , th e perform er may be moved to .guide theco n v ic tio n of h i s a u d i e n c e only a s a m e a n s to o th e r e n d s ,ha v in g no u ltim ate co n c ern in th e c o n c e p t io n th a t th e y hav e ofhim o r of th e s it u a ti o n

p r e s e n te d .

people

i s th a t th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s to g e th er fit into a co h e ren t framework that t i e s to g e th e r b i t s of e x p e r ie n c e the r e a d e r h a s a lre a d yhad and p r o v id e s th e stu d e n t with a guide worth t e s t i n g in c a s e -s t u d i e s ’of i n s t itu ti o n a l s o c ia l life

In re a l life,th e t h r e e p a r t i e s are c o m p re s s e d into t w o ; th e p a rt o n e in d iv id u a l p l a y s i s ta ilo r e d to th e p a r ts p la y e d by th e o t h e r s pres e n t , and yet t h e s e o th e rs a l s o c o n s t i t u t e t h e a u d i e n c e .

e s t a g e p r e s e n t s t h i n g s th a t are m a k e - b e lie v e ; p resumab ly life p r e s e n t s th i n g s th a t are rea l a n d s o m e tim e s not wellr e h e a r s e d .

Thus there may be tangible social reasons why Jews have become preoccupied with certain scientific enterprises, but it isimpossible to predict scientific positions in terms of their beingheld by Jews or non-Jews.

hese result from accentuations of role specialization to thepoint where role-specific knowledge becomes altogether esoteric as against the common stock of knowledge.

He respondedto the challenge and took part enthusiastically in the reform movements thatradiated from the University of Chicago to the city at large. UnUke the sage ofAnn Arbor, the one-time president of Chicago's reforming City Club couldnot maintain a stance of detached observation, but was deeply immersed in theproblems of urban America

Mead, after his short period at Ann Arbor, taughtin Chicago, a city second to none in its newness, roughness, industrial vitality,

He waited on tables duringhis college years and thereafter immersed himself in the drama of the frontierwhile serving on surveying expeditions. Cooley, the son of an upper-status andindependently wealthy member of the elite, could afford a long period of semi-idleness in order "to find himself." Mead, the son of a poorly paid professor oftheology who died when Mead was still in college and left his widow andchildren in straitened circumstances, could not afford such leisure. If he was"to find himself," it was not in the privacy of his study but in the demandingenvironment of surveying crews, among rough companions who generallyknew litde about the life of the mind.

Mead often stressed that the formulation of the relation oflanguage to gesture

But, what theRomantic idealists insisted upon is that you cannot have an object without asubject

Darwin taught Mead and his associates to think in terms of process in-stead of fixed forms,

secular philosophy had strong and enduring roots in Puritan Christianity

American thinkers, among themmost early sociologists, who were reared in a strict Puritanical atmosphere butwho freed themselves from theological moorings, most often under the impactof Darwin's teaching

He was thoroughly at home in all the sub-fields of philosophy and its history and also kept himself abreast of develop-ments in the physical and biological as well as in the social sciences.

The son of many generations of Puritan theologians lost his faith in the dog-mas of the church.

In

preaching