Authors found that this species of ants are more efficient at being predators.

Since the ants were found more in caterpillar at BNP authors assumed that the ants are the primary predators of caterpillars.

Some other predators also influence caterpillar mortality, but ants are more abundant.

Present, appearing, or found everywhere.

Make (something) clear; to explain.

Authors ended up concluding that the smaller the caterpillars, the higher the rate of mortality.

The authors conclude that since there is an absence of caterpillar it is assumed that there have been a sort of mortality for this species.

This is a result where the authors implied that the crawling insects are the major predators of the species studied.

An insect whose larvae live as parasites that eventually kill their hosts.

Life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages.

A phase between two periods of molting in the development of an insect larva or other invertebrate animal.

Order of insects that includes butterflies and moths.

The ant species C. floridanus death rate is at 56.3% during this experiment. They have forced some or all instar caterpillars to leave their habitat.

A table showing the distribution of one variable in rows and another in columns, used to study the association between the two variables.

The instar caterpillars were vulnerable to be eaten, or killed by other predators.

Each species was investigated to determine and compare each tree group.

Omnibus tests are statistical tests that are designed to detect any of a broad range of departures from a specific null hypothesis.

The details of the ants captured by pitfall traps near the host plants of the Swallowtails. 5 of the 12 ant species captured were exotic and out of the total 243 individual ants caught, 144 were exotic

The experiment was conducted at Biscayne National Park and was split into three parts. The first part was using pitfall traps to collect ants at Biscayne Park near the host plants. Secondly, the host plants with known caterpillars were protected with various combinations of cages and tanglefoots. Concluding the author was keeping track of how long it take for certain species of ants to first find the caterpillars. Authors assumed that the ants would interact with caterpillars more frequently than other predators.

All of the ants found in pitfall traps that were placed all around the canopy in the keys. 11 out of 25 species were found to be exotic and 735 out of 1418 of the total amount of ants were exotic.

A taxonomic category, as a species or genus.

A phase between two periods of molting in the development of an insect larva or other invertebrate animal.

Of, on, or relating to the earth.

Causing harm or damage.

Subtropical dry broadleaf forest biome, also known as tropical dry forest, monsoon forest, vine thicket, vine scrub and dry rain forest is located at tropical and subtropical latitude.

The process of breeding animals in controlled environments within well-defined settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other commercial and noncommercial conservation facilities.

Authors obtained this information from the following News

Daniels JC (2014) Conservation matters: status and conservation of the federally endangered Schaus swallowtail butterfly. News of the Lepidopterists’. Society 56:138–139

The first host plant supplies food resources to micropredators, which have an evolutionarily stable relationship with their hosts - similar to ectoparasitism.

After the experiment was finished, they have found that the Pseudomyrmex gracilis and C. floridanus interacted more aggressively toward the subject compared to another species.

A plant upon which an organism (such as an insect or mildew) lodges and subsists.

Experiments used by ecologists to determine the effectiveness of putative plant pollination vectors.

The number of organisms of a particular kind as a percentage of the total number of organisms of a given area or community.

Species diversity is defined as the number of species and abundance of each species that live in a particular location.

Evidence gathered using model systems like rats and mice. Model organisms are useful for understanding how a treatment or therapy might affect humans, and are often used extensively before human trials begin.

Something that comes before. Here, "antecedent stimuli" means a stimuli that comes before drug use.

Affected.

Characterized by a desire to seek pleasure.

Intended as punishment.

Relating to the use and effects of medicines.

Crawford et al. find evidence that genetic variants associated with dark skin pigmentation have a single origin within Africa. Not only is this interesting from an evolutionary standpoint, it demonstrates that using only skin pigmentation to infer modern population structure is highly ineffective and erroneous.

For example, if scientists wanted to explore the relationships between modern human populations, and used only the genetic variants associated with skin pigmentation to do so, they might end up lumping many of the African populations in with South Asian and Australo-Melanesian populations. Focusing solely on the genetic determinants of pigmentation would lead to inaccurate conclusions about relationships among modern human populations.

The results found from the experiment and those from ad hoc sampling can be used to enhance conservation of Neotropical forests.

Ad hoc typically means a solution designed for a specific problem. Therefore, ad hoc sampling means a sampling method that would solve the conservation methods problem.

The uneven distribution of species in an area.

This is an organization that works with partners in the Amazonia and they research on things like soil nutrition.

This shows that there was higher species richness in species of 10 cm diameter versus 2.5 cm.

This is a graphical technique for representing a data set, it shows one or more variables and their relationships.

A pressed plant sample deposited and used for future research, this is used when a specific plant cannot be determined during the field work, so it is later researched to determine its species.

Shannon was who introduced the concept of entropy. Entropy is the disorder in the universe.

The amount of species there are in a given plot.

One third of the acre.

Touching or sharing a border.

Describes plots of different vegetation involved.

Set boundaries or limits.

Used to measure the distribution of organisms. The land and the species found there are separated into continuous quadrants.

How the authors obtained AGB and tree biodiversity, evaluated trade off among tree diversity and aboveground biomass

Table 2 shows the area, dimension, year of census, aboveground tree biomass, species richness, and stem density in plots that are permanently placed in six Neotropical Forests. This is pre-existing information.

How species are arranged in an area.

Study of rate of growth.

Table 1 shows the different types of plots used and how they differed in size, area covered, areas inventories, shape, and number of days used.

1 hectare plot = 100 acres.

Many different plot methods were used in order to see which method would provide better carbon and biodiversity information.

The purpose of the experiment is to find a proper method to measure biodiversity and carbon stocks of a community. Doing so will allow for better conservation methods and help quantify the amount of carbon emissions that result from deforestation and degradation of forests.

The Amazon basin covers 40% of South America. It is the part that is drained by the Amazon river. Most is covered by rain forests.

The picogram is equal to one trillionth of a gram.

Biodiversity experiments have been performed on tropical forests and it has been concluded that they are a large portion of the Earth's biodiversity.

Plot method where, the lines are laid out one after the other without attempting to maintain a set direction.

The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. Used to measure variability.

Describes how the flowers are arranged.

The number of different species in a given ecological community.

A large gradual change in nonliving factors through space such as change in tree structure.

Stems and leaves of the tree.

Carbon stored in the forest.

This field inventory method is a way to carefully screen the species that are present

Neotropic forests are found in South and the North American regions of Central America. The Neotropic includes more tropical rainforest than any other realm. These rainforest are one of the most important reserves of biodiversity on Earth.

The variability of different tree species in the ecosystem.

The total mass of the plants' structures that are above the ground (excludes roots) in a given area or volume.

This is from a journal: Applied Ecology. The author discusses climate change and how it is negatively impacting global ecosystems and how not much is being done to alleviate the problem.

Long term carbon storage.

Fundamental paper which shows how plants will uptake more CO2 when it is present in higher and higher quantities.

At 600 parts CO2 per million parts air, plant carbon uptake is limited due to low levels of CO2 present in atmosphere.

The global concentration of carbon dioxide. This fluctuates annually.

This is a report commissioned by the EDF. It is an analysis on the consequences of letting climate change continue unchecked on the economy of Florida.

Average total amount of rain recorded during a certain amount of time.

The objective of this study was to measure the hydrometerological and hydrological aspects of Esteros del Ibera.

This author's research is focused on wetlands and global climate change impact on them.

The author's research centers around the global impact of climate change on the world. He brings into question how wetland systems (most vulnerable) will be impacted and how, if there is a way to save them.

The solid bars show the actual data gathered. They measure the different rates of carbon exchange.

Figures displays projections for the effect of three climate-induced environmental changes on ecosystem processes (NEE, Reco, GEE).

As CO2 levels and temperature increase, the ecosystem will uptake more and more CO2, and will retain more carbon.

The figures show what happened to the actual data vs the data from the model. They are very close and show that the model is reliable, in other words, the data is precise.

Coastal wetlands that are flooded and drained by salt water brought in by tides

Freshwater marsh ecosystems are those areas in which fresh water, obtained from groundwater or precipitation surplus, covers the surface for a portion of the year, and where flora and fauna able to survive those conditions, reside.

The capacity of the environment to absorb by-products of production and consumption.

Biogeochemical model that simulates carbon and nitrogen fluctuations in the atmosphere, plants, and soil. Data on the soil, hydrology and temperatures have to be inputted prior to the model working.

Results from temperature differences, instability in the atmosphere.

Remember, this is a simulation! It was done on the DAYCENT simulation model.

A slow process that allows the system to be very close to equilibrium.

These charts show the different magnitudes, at differing scales of CO2, temperature, and rainfall, respectively, projected out to the year 2076.

This is the measure of mass of water per mass of dry soil. This is done by weighing the soil sample, drying it, then weighing the soil dry.

This is the sum of all the respiration that is occurring by the living organisms that inhabit the ecosystem.

This is a measure of the quantity of carbon entering and leaving an ecosystem.

A species that plays a significant role in a biotic community, however with much less importance than the dominant species.

Two or more species that are equally dominant in a biotic community.

Bowen Ratio is the mathematical method that is typically used to calculate heat loss or heat gained in a substance.

Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. This book summarizes recent studies on the vegetation, alligators, wading birds, and endangered species. It also covers the physical driving forces that created and continue to shape the everglades and patterns and processes of its flora and fauna.

Whitney et al. analyzes the obstacle within risk assessment in calculating "invasive potential". Markers studied include predictors of "rapid microevolution such as extent of heterosis, adaptation to novel habitats, and hybridization impacts. They study 38 documented species known for their invasiveness and proceed to mark their generation times, growth rates, and populations in studied areas.

Rhode et al. examined the molecular and genetic processes of heterosis and epistasis in reference to hybridization within Piriqueta caroliniana (Turneraceae) plant complex. Using controlled plant crosses, they determined the effects of heterosis and epistasis on hybrid fitness.

Morton observes and studies the impacts of the Brazilian pepper tree in regards to its ecological role in its native habitat, its invasiveness in new Southern habitats, and the animal and human interactions it garners.

Lambrinos analyzes a collection of studies of invasion dynamics through the following observations: 1) the extent of the effect of interbreeding, founder effects, drift, and migration on population dynamics, 2) landscape change and human activity, and 3) selection pressures through dispersal patterns and life histories.

Kolbe et al. fielded Cuban lizard populations to determine molecular markers for genetic variation in these invader populations. They concluded that multiple introductions have likely occurred before and the respective high levels of genetic diversity which have confirmed its invasive success.

Campbell et al. studied weed evolution utilizing crop gene introgression to measure the fecundity and survival success of hybrid plants relative to wild plants. Hybrids comparatively had 22% greater survival than wild counterparts, which concludes that they will be able to replace wild parent plants.

Ainounche et al. analyzed how the Spartina system has provided a foundational study of genomic characteristics of allopolypoid speciation through the lens of hybridization to form a more genetically varied allopolypoid species.

This article discusses how the addition of nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem affects secondary production. It was noted that there was an increase in secondary consumers most likely caused because of an increase in prey. There was also an increase of secondary consumer predators. It is mentioned that the increase of nutrients in the two years the survey was done resulted in positive effects for the secondary consumers, however, this might eventually change as the carbon levels in the ecosystem begin to decline because of the higher nutrient levels.

This article focuses on how nutrients affect the growth of primary producers. The factors that were observed to have the highest effects on the ecosystems were nitrogen and phosphorus levels.

This article discusses the respiration rate of an aquatic ecosystem and uses it to determine patterns of activity found within a river during different seasons. It was observed that there were higher levels of respiration when there were was more organic carbon in the river.

This article discusses the effect the addition of nutrients has on an aquatic ecosystem. Originally the author hypothesized an increase of energy transfer from prey to predators because of the increase of nutrients. However, this did not occur because the increase in nutrient led to an increase of predator resistant prey.

This article demonstrates how the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus led to an increase in the production of fine organic compounds by more than 300%. The article also mentions that this increase in fine organic compounds will have an effect on the entire ecosystem in that area in the long term.

This article mentions the that the rate at which inland water sources release carbon dioxide is equivalent to the rate at which carbon is absorbed by the ocean. Methane is also being released in higher levels from lakes which are beginning to thaw because of increasing temperatures from global warming.

This article discusses how an increase in nutrients affects the levels of coarse and fine organic litter. It was observed that there were higher levels of fine organic material which led to an increase in bacteria. However, in the stream with no nutrients added to it, there was an increase in both fungal and bacterial communities.

This article discusses the importance of terrestrial litter on an aquatic ecosystem. It was observed that organisms that lived in the stream that was being tested were affected the most by the absence of litter and the same effects could be observed throughout the entire ecosystem. However, terrestrial fauna was not affected meaning that it got its carbon from another source.

This experiment was a pan-European research of more than 100 streams in multiple European countries. It helped determine the importance of litter breakdown and states that countries should begin to consider the importance of regulating nutrient levels in aquatic ecosystems.

This article discusses how human practices have led to a increase of nitrogen levels in lakes. The article also mentions that an increase of phosphorus in lakes resulted in the extraction of higher levels of nitrogen. However, the author also states that laws pertaining to the concentration of phosphorus in aquatic habitats should not be removed or relaxed because phosphorus can also have a negative effect on an ecosystem if found in high concentrations.

The purpose of these experiments were to test the effects of nutrients on terrestrial carbon loss that ultimately leads to a change in ecosystems.

Learning the effects and ideal ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus for ecosystems will lead to better policies to protect them.

Environments and ecosystems perturbed due to human interference.

A city releases water contaminated by agriculture which will have an adverse effect on local ecosystems.

Read more in Lawrence-Journal World: http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2017/nov/15/short-notice-citys-release-nitrogen-contaminated-w/

Detrivores have a different method of carbon depletion from streams. finer particulate organic carbon travels faster and further away from an area, deleting the area of carbon sources.

Invertebrates may leave the system if there are no food sources and alter the food chain.

Poultry producer is fined by $1.4 million for polluting a local stream.

Read more in WJCT: http://news.wjct.org/post/live-oak-poultry-producer-environmental-groups-reach-deal-over-suwannee-river-pollution

Biological factors that drive the decomposition of carbon include the consumption and respiration from microbes, vertebrates, and in-vertebrates.

Physical factors include temperature, flow of water, and sediment.

The alignment of the reach-litterbag scale rates show that the bags represent the actual rates, and that the bags were not simply filtered by increased water flow or torn apart because of temperature.

The litterbag technique can be used to measure the density lost due to composition by microbes and fungi.

A known type and amount of litter is stuffed in the bag and is left for a certain amount of time in the stream. The bag is then later taken out and weighed while wet. The bag is allowed to dry and then the dry weight is taken.

Fine POC export represents the movement of broken down carbon along the stream. Finer particles move faster and further down a stream as biological factors such as microbes and fungi decomposing the terrestrial organic carbon.

Benthic fine and coarse particulate organic carbon can be used as a measurement when observing loss of carbon caused by detrivores.

In this experiment, leaf litter from different types of trees were used. The results are in Figure 3.

The structure and chemistry of leaves are different and this determines how fast they may decompose.

For example, tulip poplar decomposes the quickest and has a low carbon to nitrogen ratio. Comparatively, oak decomposes slowly and has a higher carbon to nitrogen ratio.

It is often necessary to use a simpler model version of a larger system because it is easier to observe.

It is difficult to observe the effects on a whole stream, but the litter bags are observed and represent the carbon loss in streams.

Litter in the litter bags have a higher concentration of carbon than the stream, which has carbon more spread out. The litter will have higher loss of carbon but generally represents reach-scales.

The biological system includes bacteria, fungi and invertebrates. Fungi colonizes the leaves once they fall in the stream and break down the carbon.

SRP is a measure of the filterable portion of phosphate known as orthophosphate.

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen is the combination of nitrogen forms nitrate, nitrite and ammonium. This is the most available form of nitrogen used by algae.

These forests shed annually and litter the streams, giving them an organic carbon source.

This is organic carbon that can be dissolved in water and run through a filter; it is smaller compared to particulate organic carbon.

In the experiment, it was found that the addition of nutrients encouraged terrestrial organic carbon loss.

This was tested by observing the litterbags of the experimental streams and comparing the data to the litterbags of the control stream.

Since a large amount of mass was lost in the stream with nutrient additions, this gives some evidence that too many nutrients off-balances organic carbon levels.

Both nitrogen and phosphorus are contributing factors to changes in terrestrial carbon loss.

Within the ecosystem, different organisms require different ratios of nutrients to react and convert terrestrial carbon to carbon dioxide.

Co-limitation is the limiting of growth caused by two factors, both must be present in a set ratio to have an effect.

There is further visualization in figure 2, where the co-limitation of nitrogen and phosphorus are presented.

The levels of phosphorus in Lake Coeur d’Alene have doubled since the 1990's. This worries authorities about the potential growth of algae and increase in heavy metals in the lake.

Read more in The Spokesman-Review: http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/nov/15/phosphorus-pollution-flowing-into-lake-coeur-dalen/

Two experiments were done separately to test the effects of nitrogen to phosphorus ratios on streams.

Pre-treatment of streams include recording the levels of nutrients and typical conditions throughout a year.

The first experiment had two watersheds with one being the control and the other having an addition of nitrogen and phosphorus to match a ratio that was decided by the scientists.

The second experiment was done on five streams with different combinations of the nitrogen and phosphorus ratio.

Although this experiment focuses on microbial and fungal effects on streams, humans sometimes also have an impact.

These effects may include the leaking of septic tanks into bodies of water that increase human waste and phosphorus levels. Fishing and polluting also affect stream ecosystems.

The experiments were conducted on streams in the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina.

Because of the elevation, there are little to no fish influencing the data. Mainly microbes and fungi influence the nutrient levels of the streams.

An irrigation line was used along the 70-150 meter streams to pump in liquid nutrients. The nutrients were pumped proportional to the flow of the water.

Terrestrially derived carbon is a source of carbon obtained from land materials such as twigs and leaves.

William & Mary’s Virginia Institute of Marine Science are studying oysters to see if they could be used to reduce nitrogen levels.

Read more in the Williamsburg Yorktown Daily: https://wydaily.com/2017/11/05/study-suggests-oysters-offer-hot-spot-for-reducing-nutrient-pollution-tek/

Particulate organic carbon is a source of carbon for the ocean obtained from living organisms and detritus; it is larger compared to dissolved organic carbon.

An increase in nutrients in nearby river has led to an increase in the levels of algae in these rivers, some of these which are toxic to people.

Read more in nwi.com: http://www.nwitimes.com/business/toxic-algae-once-a-nuisance-now-a-severe-nationwide-threat/article_2b1decfa-43c9-5d80-bf64-173e51a95248.html

These are permanent bodies of waters found interior to the coastal waters. These bodies include rivers, lakes and reservoirs.

Nutient pollution is affecting the production of fisheries in the ocean by creating dead zones in the ocean where there are low levels of oxygen.

Read more in the Iowa Public Radio: http://iowapublicradio.org/post/farmers-sea-say-livelihood-dying-midwest-ag-pollution#stream/0

This is a carbon source found on land commonly in biotic organisms.

Sequestration is the collection and storage of carbon dioxide.

In this case, the carbon is being removed from the water and depletes the riverine food webs.

See Dr. Margaret McFall-Ngai discuss the daily behavior patterns of the bobtail squid and why counterillumination is important for its survival:

Daily behavior of the Hawaiian bobtail squid.

See Dr. McFall-Ngai discuss the structure of the light organ and the symbiosis with Vibrio fischeri. She also discusses how the light organ is able to modulate the amount of light produced by the Vibrio to match down-welling light:

Structure of the light organ

Global Changes influenced the expansion of selective logging, and brings questions about carbon emissions and the effects on recruitment and therefore diversity in forests.

The authors suggest that losing or damaging communities would have considerably more negative effects on the ecosystem even if the sites are still diverse.

Gap edges had more species that consumed higher amounts of sunlight (heliophiles).

Species that can grow in a closed forest canopy did not grow in sites that were logged after 20 years. These understory plants are important habitat and provide the forest with key services.

The authors did find that the relative number of species was lower in unlogged compared with logged habitats.

There was no difference in the diversity of logged and unlogged habitat on either the types of species present or the functions they serve the community.

Diversity measure of classified data.

Percent composition of a species compared to the total number of species in the same area.

Measure of the statistical dependence among species' trait values due to their ancestral genetic relationship.

These numbers refer to the total sample size in the experiment.

Pressed plant specimen deposited for reference.

In statistics, stratification allows a researcher to divide entire populations in to subgroups.

The authors divide the data set into hilltop and slope, and 3 differently identified groups.

Relating to the arrangement of the physical features of an area.

Broadbent et al. focused on ecological changes caused by fragmentation. They determined that edges of a range are dominant and affects tree mortality, microclimates, and other aspects of tree communities; surrounding fragments may show differences in vegetation.

This influenced the decision to look at gap edges and centers for the study.

Different in kind.

Abbreviation for hectare which is a unit of area.

A region near the Earth's equator where trade winds of the Southern and Northern hemispheres join to make hot air rise and falls as thunderstorms.

The Paracou experimental site is located near the Paracou Field Station in French Guiana.

Read more about the field station at: https://paracou.cirad.fr/station/overview

The objective of the study is to address whether logging affects the forest species; is there a difference between what types of species and what each species contributes to the community when logged; and how this information can be used to improve how the forest is logged.

Refers to the relative abundance of species in a community.

Removal of trees in a specific site or area.

Changes in a forest that negatively affect the structure and function of a particular site leading to a diminished capacity to provide services.

The process of removing, and destroying forests, to be replaced by something else.

Also called biodiversity hotpot; a biogeographic area with high levels of organismal and community diversity likely under threat.

The mathematical space within an ecological unit.

A component of biodiversity concerning range in communities and ecosystems performed by organisms (the impact).

Global change and species interactions are the focus of this study. Discusses how functional trait attributes emphasize global changes.

All the populations, species, and communities in a defined area.

Refers to the number of species.

Indigenous populations found in Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, and Australia.

The KWRS test is a statistical test used to determine whether samples have the same distribution, and unlike the MWW test it can be used on more than two samples. If samples do not have the same distribution, that means something is significantly different between them.

The authors explored if luciferase expression could be driven by different haplotypes; in other words, if the haplotypes had an effect on the expression of the luciferase reporter gene.

If the expression from different haplotypes has the same distribution, the medians from the two groups would be equal, indicating that the different haplotypes have no impact on expression.

In this case, the distribution of expression is not the same, indicating that the median expression is not equal, and the haplotypes do have an effect on on expression.

Directional selection occurs when one trait is favored over others, leading to a shift in allele frequency toward the allele associated with the favored trait. This also leads to an excess of low-frequency alleles, and a negative value of Tajima's D.

Balancing selection is a process by which multiple alleles are maintained in the population, for example when heterozygotes are at an advantage (which keeps both of their alleles at a relatively high frequency). This leads to a lack of rare alleles, and a positive Tajima's D.

Tajima's D statistic of approximately zero indicates that the population is evolving with little or no selection.

The luciferase expression assay is also known as the luciferase reporter assay, and is a method to detect how much expression can be driven by a particular enhancer.

The assay is described in detail here: https://bitesizebio.com/10774/the-luciferase-reporter-assay-how-it-works/. Briefly, the authors put DNA that corresponds to the predicted, potentially causal regulatory regions into a vector that also has the luciferase gene, and then put this vector into cells. In this experiment, the authors use WM88 melanoma cells, which are a cell line grown from a patient who had melanoma.

The luciferase gene will only get expressed (and the luciferase protein made) if the regulatory region ahead of it gets expressed in these cells. To detect whether there is luciferase in the cells, the authors break open the cells to release their proteins, add additional reagents that interact with luciferase (if it is present), and use a detector to see how much light gets emitted. More light emitted means more luciferase was present, which means that there was more expression being driven by the regulatory region.

An F_ST of 0.76 here indicates that 76% of the variation in the people in these populations occurs between the two populations, whereas the remaining 24% of genetic variation occurs within the individual populations.

Ewel et al. gives a recent and brief historical outlook on the introduction of the Brazilian pepper into South Florida and its subsequent ecological invasion and settlement in the Everglades.

Unimodal distribution is a statistical distribution with one clear peak.

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and the how the processes are influenced by seasonal and interannual differences in climate and habitat factors.

When an insect of animal undergoes a period of suspended development.

This is a remarkably large increase in fitness due to hybrid. According to Dr. Geiger most plant hybrids that he's studied have shown a significant increase of 5-10% would already be impressive.

Hybrids had significantly better fitness in all categories tested. They germinated faster, produced more seeds, and grew to a larger size than the other types.

Hybrid plants grew to the largest size of the three types.

+/- 5% of actual value.

Hybrids had the lowest rate of exit holes caused by predation due to the wasps, followed by eastern and western.

Hybrids had a significantly higher germination rate than the other two types. The other two types had no significant difference between each other. This may be a cause for hybrids higher fitness.

A test which is used in statistical analysis in which there are many comparison test being practiced. Even if the statistical data has no significance, the Bonferroni tests will allow significance to emerge in the data due to multiple testing.

Bonferroni correction is an adjustment made to P values when several dependent or independent statistical tests are being performed at the same time on a single data set. A Bonferroni correction is performed by dividing the critical P value (α) by the number of comparisons being made.

Post hoc tests are run to confirm where differences in means are when using multiple groups. They are only run after an ANOVA test confirms that there are statistically significant differences between the groups.