This information is used in order to introduce what species this research is going to focus on. Although the focus is on Symbiodinium, this information highlights the importance of this genus.

The two experiments are similar because they take proboscis dimensions into account. The previous experiment that the author is talking about, measured out the thickness of the proboscis and how they can be efficient in transferring pollen.

In the experiment above, the author took into account on how the length and width of the proboscis can play a role in pollination. Since both the width and length of the proboscis were measured, more information was able to be attained. With these two different approaches, some differences can be taken into account and can be compared.

Figure 3 shows the number of pollen grains adhering on the y axis and on the x axis is the fishing line difference. There showed to be no significant difference between the line thickness as you can see from the lines on the graph the largest size fishing line showed the greatest amount of pollen grains.

Relating to the stigma.

An elongated sucking mouthpart that is typically tubular and flexible, plural of proboscis.

Used to determine if samples come from the same distribution.

Since much of the calculations were done using estimations, the authors could not provide a range of values that's likely to encompass the true value. For example, when scientists say this value falls within the 95% confidence interval it means that the intervals contain the true value 95 percent of the time and fail to contain the true value the other 5 percent of the time.

In order to determine the pollination efficiency of the insects, the authors tracked how often a specific visitor groups arrived and how long each individual stayed. Then the authors calculated an “efficiency” by estimating pollen on the visitors’ mouthparts. This was calculated as the average number of pollen grains per individual visitor of each group.

The reason behind this technique is to determine what species the carriers favored.

The author monitored when the pollinators came around and interacted with the plants. Reason behind this is to determine how frequently the flower will have visitors. Another reason why the author monitored the plants, was to determine the period of time when the flower had the most visitors. With both of these factors being monitored, the author can determine more or less how frequently these plants can have their pollen spread throughout an area.

A structure in the flower which contains pollen.

A type of plant that persists for many growing seasons. Generally, perennial plants keep their leaves year round.

It is well known that insects use their proboscides or mouthparts to sip nectar and collect pollen. However, according to new research, the proboscis actually works more like a paper towel than a straw.

A gathering of species, excluding non-living factors.

Agents that condition organisms to have either a survival benefit or a disadvantage. Selective pressures drive natural selection. They can include environmental conditions, availability of food and energy sources, predators, diseases, and direct human influence among others.

Location on evolutionary tree based on physical or genetic characteristics.

The study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features. Floral morphology relates the to structural features of the flower.

Any animal that, intentionally or not, takes pollen from one flower to another.

Given how closely related and interbred they were, there was more genetic diversity in the Coccothrinax palms than expected.

Refers to the non-random association of alleles at different loci in a given population. This experiment included a test for linkage disequilibrium (LD). To achieve this the researcher used ARLEQUIN v.3.5.2.2 which is an integrated software for population genetics data analysis. From this program they used the likelihood ratio test which tested for LD.

The location or position in a chromosome of a particular gene. Plural of locus.

Microsatellites, also known simple sequence repeats (SSRs) in plant genetics, are identified through sequencing. This research helps to identify the biological functions of the genes and how they affect the plant in terms of its genomic makeup.

The Caribbean Island Biodiversity Hotspot has a great need to practice conservation since it has been subject to many events that are threatening of native species.

Plants or animals that exist in one geographical location.

A land-locked lake in Hispaniola that contains a high concentration of salt.

The article written by Carl D. Hopkins provides the author with background informational on B.pinnicaudatus and on the electric organs found within the organism. B.pinnicaudatus is a gymmotiform discovered in French Guinea and can be found throughout South America. This species similar to other electric fish is able to generate a pulse-type electric-organ discharge. The two types of electric discharges generated by electric fish tend to a pulse or a wave. This species is part of the largest family that produce electric pulses. Within this species, the males are able to produce a longer discharge than females.

In his paper Electric Organs, Fishes, Bennett explains the various mechanisms behind electric fish organs and how they generate electricity, such as electrocytes and discharge patterns. He also describes several vital functions of electric organs and how they vary depending on the strength of the species' electricity, or the power of its voltage emission. For example, the electric organs of more strongly electric fish, or those who emit higher voltages, emit electricity to defend against predators. Conversely, in more weakly electric fish, their electric organs emit electricity that serves as a method of communication.

This reference is significant to this paper, Electric organ discharges and electric images during electrolocation, because it gives a broad overview on electric fish, their anatomy, and their functions. It serves as a source of background information and context for this paper, which can be especially helpful for readers who possess limited knowledge on electric fish.

This source provides information about how the various regions of neuronal activity in electric fish respond differently to variance in body movement.

Specifically, electrosensory pyramidal cells (neurons found in the areas of the brain that are involved in executive functions: memory, emotional responses, etc.) activate or discharge electric signals in multiple ways dependent on the re-afferent (sensory information that is received) signals from their external environment.

This source provides information about how the electrical patterns of small fish work compared to dipolar geometry and how that changes as the fish become larger in size.

Specifically, the smaller electrical fish, which the author of this article is studying, have electrical currents that work like magnets. These smaller fish are much easier to measure and experiment on since their electrical currents and fields can be predicted. The bigger electrical fish are the more likely the electrical fields are to deviate from a dipole field.

Bullock's and Heiligenberg's article, Electroreception, gives an in-depth knowledge on electroreception as well as a review on the electric organs that are found within marine vertebrates. This background provides the author with the basic foundation for understanding how electrolocation works and the purposes it serves these marine vertebrates in their natural environment and daily lives. This citation also helps the author introduce the topic of electrogenesis and electroreception in relation to the location of the organs necessary for the process of electrolocation to occur.

Table 1 shows data indicating linear relationships between variables that changed in an evolving population based on the variability of the environment. The P column explains whether the data is statistically significant, meaning it can be concluded as a relationship between data and not just due to random chance. The two values observed for each variable are Y intercept (which indicates whether the trait changed from the original population) and the slope (which indicates how much the trait changed). These values are calculated as P values to determine if they are significant.

Table 1 indicates that plant height, competitive ability, and seed mass had significant intercepts, meaning these traits changed from the original population, but only plant height showed a significant slope, meaning that the other traits did not have a significant rate of change.

Notice that each bar in the figure has small capped lines that extend above and below the bar. These lines represent error bars for the various VOC emission factors. Error bars reflect the experimental uncertainty in determining VOC emission factors. The error bars in this figure are 95% confidence intervals, meaning that we are 95% certain that the true value lies somewhere in between the top and bottom of the error bar. Any measurement made has uncertainty associated with it.

In scientific communication it is important to give the value that was found and the uncertainty in that value. We typically talk about uncertainty as being the precision of the measurement, where a smaller uncertainty is a more precise measurement and a larger uncertainty is a less precise measurement.

Teragram, grams in the trillions.

Used in the last step of the juvenile hormone biosynthesis pathway that converts acids into hormones.

One of the most significant stages of the reproductive cycle is vitellogenesis which involves massive production of yolk protein and their accumulation in developing oocytes. Vitellogenesis is dependent on the availability of a blood meal and, as a consequence, is linked to transmission of pathogens. Therefore, vitellogenesis and other aspects of mosquito reproductive physiology is critical for their management of disease. The ovarian resting stage in the reproductive cycle of female mosquitoes is a time when the eggs are not being produced. In addition, the ovaries will not develop beyond a resting stage until a blood meal of adequate size has been taken.

Scientists started using fluorescent tags as a natural way to accurately detect low concentration of metabolites in insects. This method proved to be sensitive and effective and most importantly stable. Being stable was an important factor in this method because if it was not stable it would start to degrade after about 15 minutes. The new method has lasted over an hour, which is in benefit of being detectable by HPLC-FD (High-Performance Light Chromatography with Fluorescent Detection).

RNA Interference is a response to double-stranded RNA that is responsible for the resistance of pathogenic nucleic acids such as certain mutations in base pairs, and regulates how genes express a particular protein.

Found in the head of insects. It is responsible for the regulation of metamorphosis and reproductive functions in most insects.

A signaling pathway allows an activation process to occur for a cell to have a specific function. In this case, communication takes place between these two different hormones, juvenile and insulin. These hormones work with energy to develop an insect.

Put to death with minimal pain.

Unlike the other fish, the little tunny had muscle contraction times increasing from head to tail, implying that they used their head more than their tail for swimming fast. The authors compared this to another species of tuna, the bluefin tuna because it had a similar trend in muscle contraction. They analyzed this to mean that at high speeds, muscles from opposite sides of the fish (left and right) will contract so that the waves of contraction move towards each other and overlap, which makes the body stiff.

Previous studies have suggested that this helps move the force from the contractions from the head towards the tail.

Here the author ties the goal of this study with the data collected. The goal of this study was to test whether earlier studies were correct in their estimations of maximum swimming speeds in sailfish. The author describes that the data collected disproves earlier studies and provides explanation as to why the data of the prior studies may have been skewed.

Members of a large and extremely diverse group of ray-finned fishes.

The Mantel tests allowed the authors to determine the amount of difference between species. The test uses estimated distances to measure difference.

In this case, it is testing chemical differences between species. The results indicated Piper species that are more chemically different are more likely to exist within the same environmental patch.

A Mantel test measures the correlation between two matrices. In this case the Mantel test was used to estimate the correlation between species phylogenetic distance and their co-occurrence.

Using this test, the researchers were able to statistically verify that there is a negative relationship between how closely related two species are their co-occurrence.

Pianka's Index is used for field measurements of the niches. They can measure microhabitat, resource usage, and spatial activity. The values range from 0 to 1, no resources used in common between species to complete overlap in resource use, respectively.

Gotelli's c-score measures co-occurrence between species. A binary matrix is used to represent the absence (0) or presence (1) of a species. Each column represents a site and each row represents a species. Once the c-score is calculated a high value indicates less co-occurrence and a low values indicates there is more likely to be co-occurrence.

Here, the author’s evaluated whether or not similar species tend to coexist together using the inverse nearest relative index (-NRI), which asses clusters of species, as well as the inverse nearest taxon index (-NTI), which asses cluster taxonomy of clustered species.

Along with data obtained by the chemical dendrogram the clusters were analyzed and diversity in relation to clustering was discovered.

In order to assess the dispersion of Piper species, the authors analyzed the secondary chemical composition of the plants. In plants, secondary composition are organic compounds used for plant defense. They are secondary because their absence does not cause immediate death of the plant.

The analysis of the secondary chemical composition was performed using a chromatography technique: GC-MS. This technique does not detect all secondary metabolites but it detects most of them (86% of the metabolites).

After the secondary metabolites were detected, a library was created for all species and the library was compared to references in the AMDIS (Automated Mass Spectral Deconvolution and Identification System -a mass spectra identification system). The library created was a mass spectra library.

Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies molecular weights of compounds which helps in the identification process. The particular identification method allowed the researchers to assess chemical similarities between individual plants and species.

This analysis allowed the researchers to conclude that the Piper species were more spread apart than expected when their secondary metabolites was the point of comparison.

The chemical properties of Piper allow it to ensure its success. By doing this it influences other plants and animals in its community. This can include suppression of other plants, eliminating certain herbivores from the area, etc.

The data suggest that the chemical products Pipers produce seems to be inversely proportional to their phylogenetic relatedness. So communities that tended to have a wider range of chemicals, were also the communities that were most closely related.

Zhang and Schlyter suggest that the diversity in mixed forests interferes with host choice guided by smell.

As the level of pheromones (semiochemicals) increase, herbivores disturbance increases.

Although the experiments showed that Piper species that were chemically similar were not likely to coexist, this was not the case for phylogenetically related species. The data suggest that the species who were most closely related, were actually more likely to coexist is a patch.

There may be other traits of the Piper, other than chemical similarity, that may have an influence. The environment may push for the conservation of these traits.

The amount of time that has passed since two species have shared their most recent common ancestor.

The approach used in this study allowed the authors to conclude that the more similar plant metabolites are between Piper species, the least likely they are to be found next to each other.

A positive relationship in this case means that the more different species are chemically, the more likely they are to coexist.

In order to asses species coexistence, the amount of niche overlap needed to be found. Niche overlap occurs when two or more organismal units use the same resources. More overlap would mean that more species exploit each resource. This was done using Pianka's Index.

In Brownian motion model of evolution, traits change randomly in distance and direction.

The model uses two parameters: the population mean trait and the evolutionary rate parameter.

This model is used in biology to compare traits between individual species and create phylogenetic trees.

Through the presence or absence of chemicals within the leaves of the sampled species, the researchers conducted the K statistic for the phylogenetic signal of the secondary chemicals. Through this analysis, the authors found that related Piper species were less likely to share their secondary chemical characteristics.

K statistic is a statistical analysis of the phylogenetic signal based off a Brownian motion metric that determines the strength of the phylogenetic signal.

The likelihood that taxas with a shared common ancestor will have similarities in their appearance, behavior, and in their interactions with others.

Piper is a very species rich genera of flowering plants. Molecular phylogenetics has been crucial in identifying the monophyletic groups of this genus.

The researchers amplified the ITS region and the psbJ-pet A intron of each of the sampled species they collected to conduct a phylogenetic analysis. They were able to construct a phylogenetic tree of the Piper species that were found within the patches they sampled.

The authors collected data regarding chemicals produced by the plants used in their experiment using a multi-step process.

They first preserved leaves they collected within silica gel before transporting the leaves to the University of Missouri, St. Louis. There, the researchers crushed the leaves under liquid nitrogen. Next, a methanol-chloroform solution was used to extract volatile compounds along with a small addition of piperine. The authors then filtered and stored the compounds so that they could later be analyzed.

A large and diverse group of organic compounds that are present in many plants and insects.

Terpenes are often found in conifers, which release a distinct scent.

The authors used previously collected extracts from leaves and analyzed them using gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), which determines chemicals within an extract based off particular peaks given off by those chemicals. They were able to find that 40% of all Piper species contained the same types of chemicals.

In order to conduct the experiment, patches needed to be sampled and the average number of Piper per patch needed to be calculated. The researchers created transects located between 50 and 100 m from the trail and a large space separated each transect (more than 250 m). Then in a different transect, 81 plots of 20m in diameter were created. The standardization of the plots is important for an accurate calculation of the average number of Piper per plot.

Piper had different sizes, so for a better standardization, only Piper that are more than 1cm in diameter were selected for calculating the mean number of Piper per plot. The researchers than identified the species of each Piper. A total of 2,035 individuals were counted. The mean per plot was calculated by dividing the number of individuals by the total number of plots. (2,035/ 81 = 25.123) The number of species per plot was calculated by determining the mean of the average of species per plot. The average was found to be 5.2 species per plot.

Mixtures that can readily become vapors or gases.

In the process of his research, Pianka came up with a universal formula for calculating the overlap of pairs of niches.

Narrow paths through which one collects information on the species that is being studied.

Research conducted by Dyer et al. provides information on chemicals the Piper plant produces and trade-offs that affect the Piper plant in relation to these chemicals.

A taxonomic category that can be found throughout the tropics.

The process of choosing that leads to the formation of new species due to the accumulation of differences between species.

In this comprehensive review, Wahid and colleagues discuss how plants respond to high temperatures.

They describe the physiological responses, adaptations, and mechanisms plants implement in response to heat stress.

A characteristic that can be measured based on an observable standard or quality.

A characteristic that can be measured based off of its amount or quantity.

McGill and colleagues measured functional traits by focusing on four different themes: traits, environmental gradients, the interaction environment, and performance currencies (seed output, energy intake and expenditure, etc.).

They showed that focusing on quantitative functional traits allows for identification of general plant patterns, allowing for better prediction. This helps in understanding historical aspects of the community, assembly, trait evolution, and phylogenetic structure.

The job/role that an organism performs in its environment.

The effects of foxes on the Aleutian islands are both direct and indirect in nature. The presence of foxes directly affects the seabirds by decreasing their population due to them being easy prey. Indirectly the islands plant composition is affected by the reduced populations of birds distributing fewer nutrients needed by the vegetation. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been reducing fox populations in order to restore the seabirds and have the islands support more plant life. To read more go to USGS: https://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/05/research.html

In this case, a highly specific enzyme would degrade PET but not other esters.

Describes how much an enzyme prefers one chemical to others.

Indeed, the isolated protein was found to degrade PET.

The appendages allow the cells to remain close to the PET film that serves as their energy source and helps to degrade the PET more quickly.

When the authors isolated different types of microbes, they discovered a new organism which they identified as belonging to a family of closely related organisms called ldeonella, and called it ldeonella sakaiensis or l. sakaiensis. This specific bacterium can degrade PET even in absence of all the other microbes in the consortium the authors tested earlier in the paper.

A cell that is sticking to a surface.

A common form of mica. https://geology.com/minerals/biotite.shtml

Einstein came up with the theory of special relativity before general relativity.

Special relativity assumes the laws of physics are constant in all inertial frames of reference (frames of reference that are assumed to be stationary).

General relativity expands on this, and describes the fabric of space-time on the scale of the universe (which Einstein suggests is warped by massive bodies).

Einstein expanded special relativity to general relativity over the course of about 10 years as he realized that special relativity was insufficient to explain some phenomena in the universe.

This kind of motion is impossible because it would require an infinite energy source, which violates the first law of thermodynamics (the Law of Conservation of Energy: The total energy of an isolated system is constant).

It is only by embracing Newton's ideas that physicists such as Einstein were able to consider exceptions and, in doing so, build on them.

Although we don't often think about it, scientists improve on each others' ideas all the time and revise theories in light of new evidence generated by new technologies and methodologies.

Euclidian geometry presumes a uniform and constant arrangement of space. However, Einstein proposed (and others demonstrated) that space is "warped" around objects depending on their mass. The larger the mass, the greater the degree of warping.

Because time is connected to space, it is also warped around massive objects.

Einstein introduces the need for a concept of general relativity, which describes motion with respect to any two coordinate systems, not just inertial coordinate systems.

Einstein's question points out that coordinate systems are not a product of nature, but a way of understanding nature. It is because of this that physicists are able to revise the tools and methodologies they use in light of new evidence.

The analytical method begins with empirical observations, from which principles and formula are inferred (which can be applied to other cases).

Modern physicists call "inert" and "heavy" masses "inertial" and "gravitational," respectively.

After determining that neither the SM tag nor Fab would disrupt cellular processes, the authors wanted to determine how soon Fab would mark KDM5B. To do this, the authors repeated their first trial but imaged at 6 hours instead of 24.

The two tags did not appear to affect the synthesis or location of the mRNA or the ribosomes.

Preliminary testing was conducted twenty-four hours after the plasmid was transiently transferred to ensure that the methods of coupling the FLAG SM tag (that can be labeled with the anti-fluorescein antibody, anti-FLAG Fab) and the MS2 stem-loop (that can be identified with a MS2 coat protein) would not inhibit transcription, translation, or the movement of SM-KDM5B mRNAs throughout the cell.

The results are highlighted in Fig. 1C with the SM-KDM5B protein in green and the MCP-labeled mRNAs in red.

JF646 produces a brighter fluorescence than other proteins.

Bead-loading is a technique for quickly and efficiently loading large numbers of macromolecules (such as DNA and RNA) onto the cells of tissues.

A type of cell that lacks the p16 gene (which normally suppresses growth), allowing it to continue to grow and divide indefinitely while there are resources.

MS2 is a protein from the coat of bacteriophages. It has a high affinity for "stem-loop" structures, which are hairpin-like shapes formed by DNA. The authors took advantage of this high affinity by using labeled MS2 to detect certain sequences.

Antibodies "against" the FLAG-tag (SM).

A specific sequence of amino acids that can be added to proteins to "tag" them. Antibodies have been developed that have high affinity for the tag, so it is a popular choice in this kind of visualization experiment.

A circular, double stranded piece of DNA that is often used as an intermediary to insert genes into a genome.

Dyes that will not degrade when exposed to light.

For a synopsis of the present study, see Science Daily:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/05/160505144850.htm

Researchers have been able to visualize where and how quickly mRNA translation is occurring during development, but not for single molecules.

Researchers have described how fluorescent markers can be used to visualize and describe transcription in vivo, but the present study is the first to do so for translation.

The process by which RNA molecules are synthesized with information from DNA.

The process by which an amino acid chain (and eventual protein) is created using information from mRNA.

Scientists are always working to improve existing techniques to be more precise and versatile.

The main protein that is involved in translating mRNA into proteins.

A complex of mRNA and multiple ribosomes formed during translation.

Randomly.

The rate at which a new protein is synthesized (or "elongated").

An epitope is the part of a molecule that an antibody recognizes and binds to (usually as part of an immune response).

Epitope tagging takes advantage of this by creating special versions of proteins that have specific epitopes on them. The proteins can then be detected using antibodies that bind to the specific epitope.

A method that tracks the synthesis of new proteins by using fluorescent molecules to track the movement of molecules in the cell.

In a living organism.

A type of RNA that transmits information from DNA (where genetic information is stored) to the ribosome (where proteins are created from genetic information).

a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons and thereby be reduced.

the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen.

Childers and colleagues demonstrated that Everglades hydrology was co-varying with changes in greenhouse warming potentials, energy fluxes and C dynamics which proved that hydrology is important for creating and maintaining conditions sufficient for wetland ecosystem and structure

Jimenez and colleagues studied the effects of carbon balance in wetland ecosystems before the planned Everglades restoration of historical water flow. They trajected that there would be an alteration on the carbon dynamics of the Everglades as a whole.

the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.

an embankment built to prevent the overflow of a river.

a passage for surplus water to run over or around an obstruction (such as a dam)

refers to variations in the state and characteristics of a water body which are regularly repeated in time and space and which pass through phases, e.g. seasonal. (DJ)

Dugan examined wetlands in the United States and the total loss of thus ecosystem. This atlas was able to divide the world’s regions into 19 sections and develop information on the wetlands.

soil that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part.

the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide

one of the most serious weeds in Florida. It grows in or near shallow waters forming monocultures where it can quickly displace native vegetation.

common symptom or name of disease, especially of woody plants, characterized by progressive death of twigs, branches, shoots, or roots, starting at the tips.

wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams, where they form a transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds.

period of time during which a wetland ( land that is mostly covered by water) is covered by water.

Any movement of carbon between these reservoirs is called a flux. Which means transfer of carbon from one pool to another.

sometimes also called stocks or reservoirs because they act as storage houses for large amounts of carbon.

Hydrology is the main reason for the carbon balance of wetlands by controlling the uptake of CO₂ and CH4. Determining the effect of droughts on CO2, fluxes and CH4 emission was stimulated by hydroperiod with three scenarios. These three scenarios affect the rate of drought from being gradual, intermediate, and rapid transition into drought. It resulted in higher net CO2 losses net ecosystem exchange (NEE) over a 22-week manipulation. Due to drought vegetation dieback, it increased ecosystem respiration (Reco), and it also reduced carbon uptake gross ecosystem exchange (GEE). The NEE did not offset methane production during periods of flooding. Changes in precipitation patterns and drought occurrence altered the carbon storage of freshwater marshes. We can determine that with the change in the climate will modify the storage capacity of freshwater marshes by influencing the water availability.

Alternative Title: Tipping the Carbon Balance in Drought Stimulated Everglades

A Sweet Relationship: Plant and insect mutualisms and the effects of damage on nectar production in Senna mexicana var. chapmanii (Fabaceae)

Zika virus is dangerous for fetuses, but in adults the virus may eradicate cancerous brain tumors.

Read more about how Zika virus affects brain tumors here: https://medicine.wustl.edu/news/zika-virus-kills-brain-cancer-stem-cells/

An affinity for neural tissue.

Here, it refers to the fact that Zika virus specifically targets neural cells.

Underdevelopment of the brain that causes a child's head to smaller than normal.

Newborn children, up to four weeks old.

Zika is type of virus called a flavivirus, a family of viruses that is transmitted by mosquitoes and includes yellow fever, West Nile, and dengue virus.

In May 2015, Brazil was the first to associate Zika virus infection with microcephaly in newborns.

Watch the following video for more about the history of Zika: https://youtu.be/FOcSe0LtoTg

A biome marked by seasonal changes that typically sees tree growth in the summer, and a shedding of leaves in the winter.

Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone: Threats and Opportunities for Conservation (Jusu and Sanchez 2014)

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12231-013-9255-2

Other strategies used for conservation include seed banking and establishing new protected areas.

Orchid conservation in the biodiversity hotspot of southwestern China (Lia et al. 2015) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12584/full)

Based on the study where market demand of Dendrobium within TCM has diminished its population, restoration-friendly cultivation will be needed to restore this epiphytic plant species back into the environment. This form of conservation will not only help preserve the integral population of orchids in China, but also sustain the economy for its increasing demand.

In regards to conservation, it is the process of protecting endangered plant species that is outside of its natural habitat.

In this study they use SRAP marker which is sequence-related amplified polymorphism to study the genetic diversity of plant species. It is a technique that helps detect genetic variation within plants.

This paper focuses on the environmental issues such as natural occurrences that affect land, water, and soil loss.

This article talks about the different areas that have been built in order to increase preservation. There has been some limitations in terms of funding, administrative authority, and proper development. They continue to address these concerns and find possible ways to create more protected areas.

Increasing in aridity, usually reducing the number of life forms able to survive there.

Landscape characterized by sinkholes and caves, formed by the dissolution of soluble rock like limestone, dolomite or gypsum.

Whereby land rights are formally recognized for people living on or near the forest, so that they may benefit from its use (or of harvesting of some natural forest products).

In a recent study it was discovered that Dendrobium orchids can be sustainably harvested once a year if harvesters only take the old stems that have already produced fruit and flowers so that the younger stems will be allowed to reproduce.

A term coined by Liu and colleagues that argues for an unconventional introduction approach, in which orchid populations planted in natural forests are sustainably harvested.

Plants that grow in or on rocks.

Publication accounts for confusion among scientific and Chinese names for this orchid, and provides clarification on taxonomy and nomenclature.

This paper discusses efforts to reduce poaching of wild tigers by breeding tigers to increase their numbers and in theory, reduce their [tigers generally] worth. However, the argument is made that wild tigers cannot be substituted by farmed tigers to alleviate poaching because they are not valued the same by hunters. Because of this difference in worth (perceived or real) flooding the market with farmed tigers will have no effect on the demand for wild tigers.

Creating new life using man-made methods.

Natural resources gathered from the biosphere. Examples: forests, animals, and marine organisms.

Sedimentary rocks (limestone landscapes) are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form when deposits accumulate forming distinctive layers.

China’s government authority have employed new park policies in Yunnan, where explicit management zoning systems are implemented towards the local people. Tourism has been known to provide a source of income for these environmental programs.

Using 12 years of seizure records covering nearly 1000 seizures from ivory to live reptiles, the authors review and describe current status of illegal trading of wildlife and wildlife products. The authors conclude that regulation and enforcement are not enough to control illegal trade, but that education at the community scale combined with empowerment of locals to value their own wildlife, international regulation and ground-level enforcement will result in more effective control.

Personal communication was made between the author and other researchers to confirm that this species of orchid is rare and its populations are unknown due to orchid poaching.

A rare and endangered saprophytic orchid commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine for hypertension, relieving headaches, and convulsions.

Self-sustaining, reproductive.

"Hotspot" is widely used in reference to regions of especially high biodiversity in plants and/or animals.

This group surveyed all of the plants on Hainan Island and published a checklist.

This group looked at the conservation status of over 1300 native orchids distributed among 543 reserves in order to assess their status, and make recommendations for improving efforts where needed.

An actual list of all the species found in a park or area; commonly provided in reserves.

In 2016 the Chinese government announced that they plan to establish 30 to 50 nature reserves across China by 2020.

Read more in "China to establish up to 50 new nature reserves in next 5 years" http://www.ecns.cn/2016/11-03/232694.shtml

This paper reviews the progress made toward the national objectives for reducing biodiversity loss using time-series data sets against national indicators. Substantial movement forward was achieved, with stable increases in forest resources, improvements in marine ecosystem integrity, stable water quality, etc. as of 2009.

A species not native to the area.

The worth of the orchid in this habitat, with regards to supporting other life forms, pollinators, water cycling, microhabitat creation, etc.

Growing on another plant or structure, as opposed to rooted in the ground.

Looking at translocation efforts (including introduction, reintroduction and augmentation of wild populations) for conservation and supplementing declining species to return to self-sustaining numbers.

These developed countries have fewer species of native orchids.

Fauna refers to animal life, whereas Flora refers to plant life.

In Thailand there is a large network of illegal trading for endangered species of orchids to be used for medicinal purposes in China. These trades are done without domestic harvest permits or CITES permit which violates state and international restrictions on wild orchid harvest.

Read More: "Unseen harvest: Southeast Asia’s illegal orchid trade"

http://www.traffic.org/home/2015/11/24/unseen-harvest-southeast-asias-illegal-orchid-trade.html

Over use of a species for food, medicine, and other commercial purposes.

Although other studies have mentioned that orchids have certain compounds such as alkaloids that help combat illnesses, there are not enough clinical studies (except for animals) to support its medical use.

A region's plants and their traditional uses.

A branch of agriculture concerned with growing plants that can be eaten, used for medicinal purposes, or ornamental purposes.

Plants native to, and sometimes only found in this area.

Read more:

A more recent look at diversity in the region.

Tropical China Plant Diversity, Ecology and Conservation – a Glimpse at the Current State (Liu et al 2017, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12229-017-9180-7)

Genus of orchid.

In its original condition; unspoiled.

Causing harm or damage.

Foraging is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce.

Widely or constantly encountered; common or widespread.

Not part of the essential nature of someone or something; coming or operating from outside.

Belonging naturally; essential.

Provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide anti-herbivore protection.

A substitute, especially a person acting for another in a specific role or office.

Originating in human activity (chiefly of environmental pollution and pollutants).

To prevent the occurrence of something.

To prevent (someone) from accomplishing something.