ANOVA is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the differences between group means.

Group of genes in the organism that was inherited from a single parent.

The Monte Carlo method is a tool used in statistics which can be applied to scientific research in which a distribution of the possible outcomes in a data set can be produced.

Since the same experiment can be repeated many times we must have outcomes that show the probabilities of different outcome happening.

A program developed by the Pritchord lab at Stanford uses genotype data to investigate population structure. Its uses include discovering distinct populations, assigning individuals to populations, studying hybrid zones, identifying migrants and mixed individuals, and estimating population allele frequencies.

Geiger et al. utilized the Pearson's chi-squared test (χ2), a statistical test applied to sets of categorical data to evaluate how likely it is that any observed difference between the sets arose by chance, to conclude the accuracy of the type designations given.

Biomass: Total mass of an organism or the mass of the organism in a a specific area.

The weight was taken when the plant was dry for the simple reason that different species can hold different amounts of water. In order to obtain a precise measurement and compare the different species, the plant had to be dried.

To soften or the use of liquids to soften.

The field laboratory is a branch of the University of Florida's Everglade Experiment Station. The objective of which is to conduct research on vegetables and forage crops on the sandy soils of lower east Florida.

Read more about the laboratory at https://www.ars.usda.gov/southeast-area/fort-lauderdale-fl/iprl/docs/history-of-the-iprl/

Exocarp: The thin outer layer that covers the fruit.

An example of an exocarp would be the thin layer located on the outside of a grape or apple.

Mettler balance is a laboratory balance used to measure small masses to the sub milligram range. It can measure from .1 mg to .0001 mg depending on the model.

Williams found that 51% (301) of Brazilian pepper trees analyzed had a eastern haplotype and 49% (291) had a western haplotype.

Haplotypes are a set of DNA variations that tend to be inherited together.

Fleshy middle layer of the fruit.

The outer layer of the pericarp of the fruit. The skin of the fruit.

Phenolic compounds are a class of plant secondary metabolites. These include a range of compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and other substances. They are responsible for fruit color.

A perennial is a plant that lives for two or more years. Most perennials flower multiple times during their life cycle.

Wheeler's paper looked at the impact that Megastigmus transvaalensis had on the Brazillian Peppertree's Drupes. The wasp was found at all 18 sites surveyed containing the Brazilian Peppertree. The wasp damaged 23.5 ± 2.8% of the drupes during 1997–1998 and 38.5 ± 4.2% of the drupes during 1998–1999 in the winter. During the spring fruit production period, 76.3 ± 3.6% of the drupes were damaged by the wasp in 1998 and 74.8 ± 3.4% during the same period of 1999.

A survey of the Brazilian peppertree variance, was attained through spatial genetic and geostatistical research. Concluding with a history of dispersal, beginning with a short diffusive dispersal from South Florida, in where significant dispersal among intra-specific species is evidenced, instating long-distance jumps to North Florida.

Dioecious refers to a plant or animal that has male and female reproductive organs in separate individuals.

Hardiman and Culley examined hybrid populations of the Callery Pear (Pyrus calleryana) in two different generations. They compared transpiration, stomatal conductance, and water use efficiency. In transpiration and stomatal conductance the advanced generation hybrids did better than the new hybrids but the advanced generation did worst in water use efficiency compared to the newer hybrids.

Kolbe's paper looked at the evolutionary history regarding hybridization in lizards of the Galapagos islands.

Facon's study looked at the evolutionary history of snails.

Rieseberg's study looked at hybridization patterns in annual sunflowers.

Intraspecific hybridization occurs when the hybrid is born from parents of the same species that belong to different populations or breeds.

Dlugosch and Parker 2008- Surveyed the importance of or lack of genetic diversity among founding populations.

Genetic variation is variation in the alleles of genes both within and among populations.

This variation is brought about through mutations.

Founding populations of invasive species are often small, so they experience the founders effect. The founders effect is a loss of a genetic variation due to a smaller population size.

http://www.journaloffloridastudies.org/0102peppertree.html

Brazilian peppertree: a poster child for invasive plants in Florida

V. Manrique, University of Florida

J. P. Cuda, University of Florida

W. A. Overholt, University of Florida

This article provides an ample description of the impact that the Brazilian pepper tree is having on Floridian land. The article also provides information on measures being taken in order to control the species.

Stockwell et al. 2003- Discusses issues: (1) alternative perceptions of “evolutionary” and “ecological” time, (2) the role of contemporary evolution as an ecological process, (3) fitness as a bridge between evolution and conservation, and (4) challenges faced by conservation strategies based on gene flow estimation or manipulation.

An ancestor or parent.

This study examines mutations in the SLC9A6 gene. Mutations in this gene have been linked to several neurological diseases, including X-linked intellectual impairment, microcephaly, epilepsy, and ataxia.

Through sequencing and linkage analysis, the authors determined that a deletion in the region of the gene that codes for the cation exchanger NHE6 is largely responsible for neurological symptoms.

This study describes the swe (slow-wave epilepsy) mouse mutant as a model for generalized epilepsy in humans.

The authors identified and mapped the mutation that caused epileptic symptoms, and discussed other effects the mutation might have.

This study examines the regulation of certain transcription factors by neural activity. It also investigated some of the mechanisms that regulate MEF2 activity.

This study explored the heterogeneous nature of causes of autism, specifically using microarrays.

One of the major findings from this study was that patients with locus duplications have less severe symptoms than those with deletions.

This study looks at de novo copy number variations (CNVs) in autism.

They found that specific CNVs were present mostly in a single family out of their entire sample. They also showed differences in gene expression between simplex families (in which autism results from a de novo mutation) and multiplex families (in which autism is most likely inherited).

This is a review of recent cytogenetic (the study of chromosomes) work on autism. The research discussed in this review looks as how large scale deletions, repetitions, and inversions in chromosomes may cause autism.

A small percentage (around 3%) of patients with autism have cytogenetic abnormalities. Vorstman et al. identify regions of different chromosomes that future researchers should focus on.

This study showed that copy number variants (CNVs) are a risk factor for autism. The authors also suggest that autism could be caused by some oligogenic factors.

Oligogenically inherited traits are those that are determined mostly by a single gene, with other genes playing a smaller role in regulation and expression.

Risch et al. were among the first to propose that there may be multiple genetic abnormalities that can cause autism, and that these can affect different people in different ways.

A review of epidemiological surveys on autism.

The author concluded that autism is associated with intellectual impairment in about 70% of cases, and that it occurs more often in males. They also showed that there is no correlation between autism and social class, and that there is not enough evidence to conclude that race or ethnicity have an influence on incidence.

Canitano discusses the link between autism and epilepsy, showing that epileptic seizures are more frequent in patients who have autism with intellectual impairment.

The rate of comorbidity (simultaneous occurrence of both diseases) is 20-25%, meaning that around a quarter of people with autism also have seizures. This has to be taken into consideration for treatment plans.

There are many different mutations that can cause autism. The mutations described in this paper are just one type.

In some patients with autism, the authors found deletions of genes involved in postnatal brain development, which are normally regulated by neural activity. They also saw deletions in regions that are important to gene expression.

Taken together, these findings suggest that abnormalities in the expression of neural activity-dependent genes can lead to some of the symptoms associated with autism.

The stages of brain development that occur after a child is born require input from the environment and regulation by neural activity. Some of this neural activity depends on a child's experiences. This is especially true during the later stages of development.

Several of the "candidate" genes (i.e., genes that may cause autism) the authors studied here are regulated by neural activity. Because of this, the authors suggest that disruptions in this regulation by neuron could be a potential cause of autism.

To function properly, cells are constantly creating, recycling, and transporting proteins. Interruptions in this process can be a cause of disease.

Neurons express special proteins that allow them to adhere to each other and to other cell types. The ability to bind to each other is important for neurons' ability to communicate properly.

The release of glutamate, a common neurotransmitter.

In addition to disease-causing autosomal and recessive mutations, the authors showed that in some cases regulatory elements and gene dosage can contribute to autism.

Families that share a larger part of their genome are more likely to be homozygous for certain genes. Studying these families can make it easier to identify and isolate the effects of certain genes.

Heterozygous mutations can be deleterious if two copies of the functional gene are required for a pathway. Even having one copy of the functional gene may not be enough.

The authors suggest that looking at consanguineous families may help identify genes of interest in nonconsanguineous pedigrees, where there is more diversity.

A mutation that changes a codon that would normally correspond to an amino acid to a stop codon.

The authors found the NHE9 nonsense mutation in two male siblings with autism, as well as their mother, who showed childhood signs of intellectual disability.

In addition, one of the siblings had epilepsy and the other had symptoms of epilepsy (though no diagnosis).

The authors did not find the mutation in any of the controls, even on resequencing.

"Gene dosage" refers to the number of copies of a gene in a particular genotype. A gene is dosage-dependent if a certain number of copies is necessary for proper function.

Although there are many factors that influence gene expression, in general more copies of a gene will result in more protein product (either directly from the gene or as a result of regulatory mechanisms).

The mutation to NHE9 is also similar to a mutation in NHE6, which has been linked to a patient who exhibited symptoms of autism and epilepsy.

In the patients with epilepsy and autism, the authors found a NHE9 mutation that is similar to a mutation in Nhe1 that causes epilepsy in mice.

Mice with this mutation, called swe mice (which stands for slow-wave epilepsy mice), were the first mouse models of human generalized epilepsy.

The authors compared the genotypes of patients who have both autism and epilepsy to determine if these patients had similar mutations to NHE9 and surrounding genes.

A stop codon (or termination codon) is a series of three nucleotides that stops the translation process.

It works by binding special proteins called "release factors." When these release factors reach the ribosome (the site of protein translation), they cause the new amino acid chain to separate from the ribosome, stopping translation.

The term "pro-band" is used to refer to the patient being studied in biomedical research, especially research on genetics.

The different ways that homozygous deletions affect the transcription of the three genes here suggests that abnormalities in neural-activity regulated genes may play a large role in autism.

Unlike c3orf58 and PCDH10, expression of NHE9 was not significantly altered by changes in neural activity alone. However, NHE9 is among a small number of genes whose transcription was altered when the neural-activity regulated transcription factor NPAS4 was inhibited.

A statistical measure of the probability that experimental results are due to chance. It is calculated by looking at the difference between the observed (experimental) results and the expected results (i.e. the results that would be expected if only chance were involved).

The results of the test are reported as a P value, which is a probability. In general, a P of less than 0.05 means that the results of an experiment are statistically significant (and not a result of chance).

MEF2 RNAi did not increase transcription of PCDH10 as much as it did c3orf58.

However, a fusion protein that contains MEF2 greatly increased transcription. This suggests that, even though MEF2 alone did not increase transcription, PCDH10 is a target of MEF2.

PCDH10 is a potential tumor suppressor protein. Abnormalities in PCDH10 have been found in many human tumor cells.

A "forward" screen is used to identify the mutation(s) that leads to a given phenotype.

A "reverse" screen is used to identify the resulting phenotype from a given mutation.

The authors propose renaming c3orf58 to deleted in autism-1 (DIA1) because they found evidence that it was causative of autism in patient AU-3101.

Genes are commonly renamed from "generic" names such as c3orf58 to more specific names that provide information about their function. Because there is no formal regulation of gene names, many genes have misleading names or multiple names.

When the authors prevented MEF2 expression, they saw a corresponding inhibition of c3orf58 expression. This suggests that MEF2 either directly or indirectly mediates transcription of c3orf58.

The myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) transcription factor is important to cell differentiation and embryonic development.

A biological pathway, found in many eukaryotes, in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression. This is usually caused by the destruction of certain mRNA molecules.

This pathway is used by researchers to increase or decrease the activity of genes of interest.

This technique is used to study enhanced neuronal activity that may result from changes in gene expression.

Elevated KCl (an increase in potassium outside the cell) results in a sustained depolarized state in three ways:

1. Normally, potassium ions flow out of the cell, resulting in hyperpolarization. Elevated KCl outside the cell disrupts this gradient and slows the outward flow of potassium. At the same time potassium ions are flowing out of the cell, sodium ions are flowing into the cell. The flow of sodium ions into the cell does not slow down.
2. The increase in the cell's membrane potential (the difference in charge on one side of the membrane versus the other) causes sodium channels to open. This allows more sodium ions into the cell and results in further depolarization.
3. Partial activation of sodium ion channels prevents the neuron from triggering a full action potential.

Genes that are "activated" by neural activity will typically be transcribed more following a depolarization event (i.e., an action potential).

The portion of a cell's DNA that is transcribed. The transcriptome can be identified by looking at all of the mRNA in a cell.

To increase the reliability of the results, the researchers may have removed information identifying samples as "experimental" or "control." This can decrease bias in the analysis of results.

The hippocampus is a major component of the human brain and those of other vertebrates. It is part of the limbic system and has a crucial role in the consolidation of information, including short- and long-term memory and spatial navigation.

Rat and mouse hippocampal neurons are widely used in neurobiological studies. By isolating and growing individual neurons, researchers are able to analyze properties related to cellular trafficking, cellular structure, and individual protein localization.

An array is a grid of DNA samples that is used to identify and map genes.

In this experimental setup, the cDNA derived from the mRNA of known genes is immobilized. The expression pattern is then compared to the expression pattern of a gene responsible for a disease.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWk_zBpKt_w

A significant number of the genes identified by the authors in this study were transcription factors that are involved in the growth and development of the brain.

Because the three genes were identified by independent screens, it increases the reliability of the authors' conclusions.

A technique used to detect a mutation or abnormality and provide important information on its function. In this case, the authors screened for genes associated with autism.

There are many different types of screens depending on a researcher's needs, and they are widely used in scientific research.

The authors found several smaller deletions in genes that are involved in the growth and development of the brain.

The authors point out that further evidence is needed to say these genes are causative of autism. However, they suggest that several of them are likely to be (specifically the larger deletions).

Another deletion the authors found in patient AU-3101 is in a gene that codes for a protein involved in the growth of neurons.

Disrupted NHE9 has been found in a family with a developmental neuropsychiatric disorder and mild intellectual disability.

The fact that disrupted NHE9 has been found in multiple patients with neuropsychiatric disorders suggests it may be a cause of these.

The process of "reading" DNA to create mRNA, which then exits the cell nucleus to eventually be translated into a protein. This is the first step in protein synthesis.

The deletion in patient AU-3101 removes c3orf58, which codes for a protein in the Golgi apparatus.

The deletion also removes part of the transcription initiation site for NHE9.

The deletion is homozygous (present on both chromosomes) in the boy, but present on only one chromosome from each parent.

Thus, the boy inherited the deletion from both parents.

Although the authors did not sequence all linked regions (because of the time and cost associated with sequencing such large amounts of genetic material), they were surprised to find that several of the consanguineous families had rare inherited deletions.

The authors suggest that these large deletions may contribute to autism.

Only two families showed the same abnormality, in chromosome 2q. This abnormality has been previously found to contribute to autism.

The results of the authors' homozygosity mapping showed that there is considerable diversity between different consanguineous autism families. They also found that the abnormalities in the chromosomes of patients with autism were not shared between families.

Taken together, these results suggest multiple genetic origins for autism.

The higher proportion of affected women and the reduced rate of de novo CNVs in the consanguineous sample from this study both suggest a higher frequency of autosomal recessive causes for autism (and other neurological disorders) in consanguineous families.

Here, the authors compare their findings to other studies of de novo CNVs. They show that their results are similar to previous studies (such as Sebat et al.) that established the detection of de novo CNVs as a way to identify genes linked to autism.

The data showed that de novo CNVs were much less frequent in consanguineous families (both simplex and multiplex) and the amount of inherited CNVs was high.

As stated above, the low rate of de novo CNVs that segregate with disease suggests that inherited factors have a larger role.

A variation of a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence. When less than 1% of a population carries the nucleotide at this position, this variation is classified as a SNP. Some SNPs are associated with certain diseases.

Both the single nucleotide polymorphism array and BAC Comparative Genomic Hybridization arrays are used to detect the number of copies of a specific locus in a subject's DNA. This allows us to find out whether the locus is present on one or both chromosomes of a subject.

To do this, control DNA and experimental DNA are labeled with different fluorescent molecules of different colors (in the picture below, the control is red and the experimental is green).

If the experimental DNA and the control DNA are identical (i.e. the target variant is present on both chromosomes), the sample will appear orange. If the control DNA has deletions, the solution will appear red. It it has insertions, it will appear green.

The authors observed that the proportion of affected women from consanguineous multiplex families was double that of the HMCA as a whole, and triple that of simplex families.

This finding suggests an increased role of inherited autosomal mutations (as opposed to de novo mutations).

The low rate of de novo CNVs suggests that abnormalities in autistic patients' genomes came from mutations that were already present in the parents, rather than new mutations.

Hoodfar and Teebi studied the link between inbreeding and the prevalence of different genomic abnormalities.

IThey found that the prevalence of autosomal recessive disorders was more than doubled in consanguineous families.

Based on studies of other neurological birth defects, the authors hypothesized that differences between consanguineous and non-consanguineous families in the M/F ratio of affected children would suggest that autosomal recessive genes play a large part in incidence.

Because first cousins share a larger portion of their genome than two unrelated individuals, there is a higher chance that a child will inherit disease-causing mutations.

The authors selected families with one or more individuals affected by autism.

Among those families, about half have cousin marriages, which are referred to as consanguineous pedigrees.

A simplex family is one in which there is only one person with autism. A multiplex family has multiple people with autism.

In order to ensure that the results obtained from this study are reliable, the authors ensured that all of the teams were using the same clinical protocol in the same way.

To improve the quality of results, the authors chose consanguineous families (families that share a very recent ancestor), because of their high risk of having autistic children.

Researchers at Johns Hopkins University reasoned that families with multiple females with autism must have special genetic variants for autism that can be more easily identified than when comparing other groups.

For more information, see the Hub at Johns Hopkins.

A technique used to determine how a trait is inherited, and if it is inherited in a standard (Mendelian) way.

Refers to the autosomes, or the 22 numbered chromosomes (which do not include the sex chromosomes).

Refers to both the family tree and the ancestry of the subjects. In biology, pedigrees are represented with a standard set of symbols, such as those below:

Studies have shown that there are many unique combinations of mutations that can cause autism, as is the case with intellectual disability and epilepsy.

Unfortunately, given that there are so many ways for autism to occur, it is difficult to identify all of the mutations and changes that can lead to symptoms.

Here, "syndromic" means common varieties of autism.

Phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated, deleted, or inverted. It has been shown that CNVs at specific locations increase the risk to develop autism.

Data supports the fact that autism is linked with several genomic regions. Nnew regions are still being identified today.

Autism is associated with intellectual disability (formerly called mental retardation*) about 70% of the time, and males are more often diagnosed.

There is no evidence that social class has an impact on the incidence of the disease, but there is not enough data to know if race or ethnicity influence the incidence of autism.

There is also no available data to support the idea that incidence of autism is changing over time.

*For more on the movement to change the language of disability, see the Wall Street Journal.

In this article, the authors focus on patients who inherited long deletions or additions from their parents.

However, this is not the only approach to understanding the genetics of autism. Some look directly at the appearance of de novo single nucleotide polymorphisms (mutations to a single base).

A mutation is de novo when it appears for the first time in an individual, rather than being inherited.

It is usually the result of a mutation in the germ line (the cells that produce sperm and eggs) of one of the parents, or a mutation that arises in the fertilized egg itself.

It is also known as a new mutation.

Several research teams have worked independently to identify loci that could be responsible for autism. However, this has been difficult due to the high number of genes that could be involved and the high variability between affected individuals.

A mental health disorder that is caused by the nervous system.

Disorders like autism that can result from many different genetic anomalies.

Autism is difficult to characterize not only because there are many different genetic causes, but also because autism sometimes results when several otherwise benign mutations come together in the genome of an individual.

A method for mapping genes involved in rare, recessive disorders. It is used in inbred populations (populations where many individuals are related to each other). Because these populations are very highly related, individuals will share large areas of their chromosomes in areas surrounding target genes.

Synapses (the electric signals that transfer information in the nervous system) regulate the expression of some genes.

Among the genes regulated by neuronal activity are those that are involved in learning.

Locus (pl. Loci.) : The locus of a gene is its physical location on a specific chromosome.

"Mapping" a locus means finding out where it is physically located on a chromosome.

Example: location of the genes BRCA 1 and BRCA 2:

Autism-spectrum disorders (ASD), sometimes referred to collectively as "autism," are a family of developmental disorders that have different symptoms and intensities.

The authors found that A. berteroi is best pollinated by bees.

This is drawn from the fact that other visitors did not carry or deposit pollen well.

Results were different from previous research who showed that one species were pollinated by long, thin mouth parts.

The author is explaining that the pollination of the species "Euglossine" has been experimented on before. With this being said, the previous work tested these bees and how they interact with plants.

In the above article, the author is specifically experimenting on this family of bees and how they interact with A. berteroi in the pine rockland environment. The author is more concerned with how these bees interact with this specific plant.

In this table, the author describes how the width and length of the insects proboscis play a role in pollination.

This chart was made to determine the differences in proboscis.

Apocynaceae flowers restrict visitors with mouthparts long enough to reach the base of the floral tube.

Previous data states that the A. berteroi species is only visited by skipper butterflies. However, the authors found they are also visited by long-tongued bees to the same extent.

These butterflies were taking the reward meant for true pollinators without actually aiding the plant in reproduction.

This study found a correlation between the thickness and effectiveness of feeding parts used by pollinators.

It is possible that a wide pollen receptacle results in a need to have thicker feeding parts.

The authors found that only flowers visited by long-tongued bees produced fruit after a single visit.

The authors also determined that non-skipper butterflies and short-tongued bees are less effective pollinators in comparison.

Fishing line was used to simulate repeatedly the collecting of nectar. This could then be used to see which line (stand-in for proboscis) collected the most pollen, and if it correlated with thickness.

In this table, the author describes various interactions the visitor encountered with plants.

Non-parametric (not assuming a normal distribution) statistical test that is used to compare two sample means that come from the same population, and used to test whether two sample means are equal or not. The authors conducted the Mann-Whitney test post hoc (after the Kruskal-Wallis test) in order to compare the groups (to investigate which groups significantly differ) but with corrections to control for inflation of type I error (false positive – determining differences in the dataset when there actually is none).

This study site was a part of a previous experiment. In the previous experiment, the study site was chosen due to the abundance of individuals that were present. Essentially, the area with a higher abundance of individuals is beneficial to the experiment. It is beneficial to use previous work as a reference, especially if there is a common factor.

This species that will be studied shows complex floral arrangements.

A plant that is not formally a part of the family Asclepiadaceae.

Diversity describes the number of species, while abundance describes how many individuals of each species.

The following conducted on Angadenia berteroi, a flower from the Apocynaceae family native to south Florida describe the pollination patterns of butterflies and bees.

http://2014.botanyconference.org/engine/search/index.php?func=detail&aid=116

A type of flower that has a long, thin, tube-like structure. The tube-like structure is formed by the pedals and often separate the mouth into a flared shape.

Floral tube length in hawkmoth-pollinated plants will determine which insect will transfer pollen. if it is too short or too long they will not be effective.

The structure of the insect determines the effectiveness of the pollination as well as the shape of the flower like the length of mouth part and floral tube.

Most plants show visitation from other insects but not all pollinate.

A new Piper species called Piper kelleyj was found in Equador by University of Cincinnati botanist Eric Tepe. The plant is now commonly known as "pink belly" pepper. This is because of the rosy underside of its leaves. It hosts 40 different species of insects (at least).

http://magazine.uc.edu/editors_picks/recent_features/herbarium.html

http://www.amjbot.org/content/102/2/273.long

The research by Martinez and his colleagues used fossil from Piper and compared them to angiosperm species (a plant that has flowers and produces seeds) in order to evaluate the age divergence of the taxa. The divergence was estimated at thirty millions years.

The Piper species that were sampled were found to contain secondary chemicals that likely function to protect the plant from herbivores.

Evolutionary history that traces the relationship between organisms.

A mechanism plants use to ensure their survival.

The plant produces one or more biochemicals that affect neighboring competitors in their growth and/or reproduction.

Species with different chemical properties are less likely to compete with one another, therefore tend to coexist with each other.

Species that are closely related tend to coevolve, which allows them to coexist together more easily than non-related species.

Sedio describes the phylogenetic niche conservatism (PNC) phenomenon that occurs in plants.

In this phenomenon, a plant's microhabitat patterns are influenced by the biogeographical history of the plant's ancestors. He explains how related taxa are able to coexist since they were able to retain significant niche characteristics of their common ancestors.

The young leaves make large energy investments in chemical, developmental defenses, and floral nectar.

There were many variations among species suggesting that herbivory is a strong selective agent.

The research performed by Cavender-Bares and his colleagues highlights the importance of evolutionary processes combined with community interactions in community dynamics.

The combination of phylogeny with their functional attributes help in better understanding communities.

MacArthur and Levins explain that diversity of species living within the same environment can be explained as a result of limiting similarity.

Götzenberger's research suggest that species distribution is largely influenced by intraspecific competition (competition within the same species)

As the number of superior competitors increases, diversity decreases. This holds true only until other species are excluded.

Non-living physical and chemical components that affect living organisms and the surrounding ecosystem.

Hartman's research focused on secondary metabolism in plants. These were associated with genes that have a high ability to change and adapt to the pressures of their environment.

Each plant population has unique secondary chemicals that have adapted to a plant's specific niche.

Swenson summarizes how to estimate the similarity between species by using both functional traits and phylogenetic trees.

He uses the data from these approaches to test the mechanistic community hypothesis.

The authors used sgRNAs to target enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) cells.

The EGFP cells allow the cell to express fluorescent color. sgRNAs target these cells and destroy them. In cells where the sgRNA removed the EGFP gene, there is no fluorescent color.

In logged habitats, does diversity of species, or their function in the ecosystem matter more?

See Dr. Bethany Radar and Dr. Ned Ruby use confocal images and immunocytochemistry to look at Vibrio fischeri in the crypts of the light organ:

A look at Vibrio fischeri

Sea ice decline due to global warming is affecting plant productivity in arctic regions.

This paper explains the effects of low temperatures on the development of arctic plants.

This paper talks about the implications that alterations in the phenology of E. grandiflorum might have on its surrounding environment specially pollinators and herbivores.

This source compiled the data from 13 ITEX sites and analyzed how the phenology, growth, and reproduction of plants in Tundra regions was affected by warming climate.

This paper adds on by going more in depth on how an increase in temperature near the poles is affecting the photosynthetic activity in the plants living in these regions.

Changes in plant phrenology prove that plants are being influenced by environmental changes.

Maxwell builds on this data by presenting the different models used to study the effect of climate change in the Arctic ecosystems.

Sea ice decline due to global warming is affecting plant productivity in arctic regions.

Heat sums have increased over time for flowering and senescence. Warming induced early leaf bud bursts, growth, and reproduction but did not affect senescence. Study was performed in multiple sites in the arctic region over a course of four years.

Warming induced early leaf bud bursts, growth, and reproduction but did not affect senescence. Study was performed in multiple sites in the arctic region over a course of four years.

Climate change will result in a shifting of where plants are usually located on the planet. Southern plants will move into higher latitudes, for example.

P values greater than 0.001 are generally considered insignificant in statistics.

The trends found indicated that high-elevation Arctic plants grew, flowered and aged at lower heat thresholds than low-elevation Arctic and alpine plants.

There was a strong negative relationship between the temporal trend of phenological events and the summer temperature trend for each species and site.

The accumulated daily temperature required for plant growth has increased over time.

The accumulated daily temperature required for flowering and aging has decreased over time.

With warmer temperatures, plants are growing at a later time in the year but flowering and aging at an earlier time in the year.

"Bootstrapping" is a process that allows scientists to ensure that their statistical data sets are correct by doing hundreds of random samplings.

Statistical analysis such as linear mixed models were used to demonstrate if the trends in the timing of phenological events were associated with the temperature during the summer.

Large species sampling size necessary (or interspecific variation in species may be too high)

Warming experiments underpredict the advance of spring events

Experimental results alone cannot be used for parameterizing species distribution and ecosystem models

Best (currently) measure: observational data

Two types of measures were used to calculate the time of phenological events. One of them was thaw degree days (TDD) which was able to show how much heat was produced from snowmelt until the phenological response occurred. The other measure was done by comparing the slopes of each species-subsite. The slopes represented the time of the phenological event and the year or temperature it took place. One of the advantages of this measure is that it shows the comparison between species and sites.

The different locations used was categorized based on climate zones which were high Arctic, low Arctic, and alpine. They were also categorized as dry, moist, or wet.

The average temperature for spring and summer times within a year were used to analyze temperature change throughout the experiment.

The plant phenology was compared with the mean monthly air temperatures.

Used to show the most accurate average of the temperatures.

The data used for the weather was gathered from the specific site. However, in some places such as Finse, Norway, where the weather data was not available for a period of time, the averages from previous years was used.

The plants were ranked based on the way they looked.

The plants' flowers and leafs were measured once or twice a week.

The meaning of a generalist flower can mean different things to different people. This review aims to assess these different meanings in the context of the ecological processes such as pollination.

Measuring pollinator performance is significant to conservation efforts. However, comparing pollinator performance among pollinator groups is difficult due to the differences in collection methods and the diversity of the pollinators. This review resolves vague concepts.

The author studied the way the species of insects obtain the flowers nectar. Specifically, the flowers that have a greater length to their nectar. This research was to determine how specific insects can obtain nectar and what specific plants they have to go to gain what they are looking for.

The Authore studied how length of mouth parts and tubes will affect the vistiation from bumble bees

The author researched the floral structure and what components are in their nectar in three different "Apocynaceae" species. Reviewing these components can verify the similarities each plant may have with each other.

The author studied how hummingbirds pollinate flowers

The author studied the biology of flower plant "Angadenia berteroi" and how they breed.

Arbulo et. al. studies the proboscis length of two Uruguayan bumblebees in relation to the depth of the floral tube. The study found both species of bumblebees used the cultivated species of flowers. However, they did so in different amounts.

How tube length will determine the type of pollination

The author researched other articles based on pollinators and nectary reward

An informal phylogenetic tree that represents clusters of species with similar characteristics.

Secondary compounds that are only present after a stimulus occurs.

For instance, one stimulus could be leaf damage caused by herbivory.

Gas Chromatography: Used to separate and analyze compounds that do not decompose. Measures the content of multiple components in a sample.

Mass Spectroscopy: Measures the characteristics of individual molecules. This is done by converting the molecules into ions so they can be manipulated by magnetic and electrical fields.

GC-MS is a machine that does both.

The factors that dictate the presence and amount of a species within a community.

Species or populations that reside in the same geographic area.

Differences with species resulting from reproductive barriers.

The most amount two species can share their living environments and still coexist.

Level in the food chain an organism belongs to in an ecosystem. For instance, plants that are primary producers belong to the first trophic level.

Of related nature or origin. Of the same genus.

A collection of plants or organisms in a specific geographical area that exist at a specific time.

Compounds that play a role in a plant's ecological interaction with its environment.

For example, secondary compounds may function in protection against herbivores and/or pollinator attractants

Synthetic (lab-made) sugars.