Svein Loeng. (2020). Self-Directed Learning: A Core Concept in Adult Education. Education Research International, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3816132

Galustyan, O. V., Borovikova, Y. V., Polivaeva, N. P., Kodirov, B. R., & Zhirkova, G. P. (2019). E-learning within the Field of Andragogy. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(9), 148–156. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i09.10020

Bradutanu, D. (2012). A Comparative Study of Two Organisational Change Models. Cross-Cultural Management Journal, 14(1), 28–33. https://doi.org/http://cmj.bxb.ro

Linden, T. (2018). Scrum-Based Learning Environment: Fostering Self-Regulated Learning. Journal of Information Systems Education, 29(2), 65–74.

Rush, D. E., & Connolly, A. J. (2020). An Agile Framework for Teaching with Scrum in the IT Project Management Classroom. Journal of Information Systems Education, 3, 196.

Dolasinski, M. J., & Reynolds, J. (2020). Microlearning: A New Learning Model. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 44(3), 551.

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Changes in the current workplace are creating changes in traditional processes. One such process is the way that the millennial and subsequent generations joining the workplace consume learning. The hospitality industry is an ever-changing service industry in which organizations need to continue to adapt to stay relevant. Trained employees providing excellent guest experiences are a competitive advantage. Some barriers to training include lack of time, lack of resources, and changing learning expectations. The aim of this article was to propose a new learning model that integrates performance workflow and microlearning. Microlearning is an approach that focuses on a single concept, utilizing multisensory and multimodality in a focused short amount of time. It can be easily incorporated to the job workflow. The model, future research, and implications are discussed

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Lynn C. Emerson, & Zane L. Berge. (2018). Microlearning: Knowledge management applications and competency-based training in the workplace. Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An International Journal, 10(2), 125–132.

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The focus of this article is a threefold discussion on microlearning 1) how microlearning best practices facilitate knowledge acquisition in the workplace by engaging and motivating employees through short, personalized, just-in-time learning, 2) ways microlearning integrates with knowledge management applications through situational mentoring, and 3) how competency-based microlearning, via subscription learning, is both an innovative approach to e-learning and an asset to learning organizations focused on improving the performance of their employees.

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Ravenscroft, A., Schmidt, A., Cook, J., & Bradley, C. (2012). Designing Social Media for Informal Learning and Knowledge Maturing in the Digital Workplace. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 28(3), 235–249.

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This paper presents an original approach to designing social media that support informal learning in the digital workplace. It adapts design-based research to take into account the embeddedness of interactions within digitally mediated work-based contexts. The approach is demonstrated through the design, implementation, and evaluation of software tools supporting a particular type of informal learning called "knowledge maturing". The paper: introduces and presents the rationale for, and concept of, knowledge maturing; presents a new design methodology for developing social media that support informal learning and knowledge maturing; focuses on one prototype, for "people tagging for organisational development", that was produced by the methodology (and concisely describes two others); presents the formative evaluation of the highlighted prototype; and finally, discusses the implications and insights arising from this work.

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Wittkopf, C., & Berge, Z. L. (2007). The Role of Informal Learning in Today’s Successful Training Department. Journal of Educational Technology, 4(2), 15–22.

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The integration of work and learning is becoming the dominant means of workforce training in many organizations today. Though structured classroom learning will likely but never entirely recede, a preponderance of current research indicates that the future of most job-related learning will lie in non-traditional methods such as short e-training modules delivered directly to the desktop, podcasts, informal knowledge-sharing sessions, and even structured gaming environments. This paper will explore why such learning is becoming increasingly more critical, how a successful blend of informal and formal learning can achieve the individualized training that a majority of employees are beginning to demand, and the difficulties involved, specifically with respect to evaluation and the ways in which it can be leveraged by a training department. These types of learning can be combined with some traditional training events to create a meaningful learning path for new employees and existing ones alike, and training and development specialists will have to find ways to achieve the right blend to achieve improved workforce performance.

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Cunningham, J., & Hillier, E. (2013). Informal Learning in the Workplace: Key Activities and Processes. Education & Training, 55(1), 37–51

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The purpose of this study is to define characteristics and processes that enhance informal learning in a public sector workplace. Design/methodology/approach: Based on interviews and questionnaires, the authors solicited examples of informal learning practices that 40 supervisors experienced during their careers. The examples were content analyzed to define seven broad themes underlying informal learning. Findings: The findings illustrate seven broad themes describing learning activities and processes. The first three themes describe the types of informal learning activities that supervisors found valuable: relationships; learning opportunities enlarging or redesigning their jobs; and enrichment opportunities that provided higher levels of managerial learning. Four themes describe processes for facilitating informal learning: planning processes; active learning and modelling; relationship dynamics; and tying learning to applications. Originality/value: The value of this study is in presenting a possible framework defining informal learning that describes both activities (the what) and the underlying processes (the how) by which they are delivered. Beyond this, it suggests that there is a close connection between the activities and the processes underlying them.

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Shuang Geng, Lijing Tan, Ben Niu, Yuanyue Feng, & Li Chen. (2019). Knowledge recommendation for workplace learning: a system design and evaluation perspective. Internet Research, 30(1), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-07-2018-0336

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Purpose Although digitalization in the workplace is burgeoning, tools are needed to facilitate personalized learning in informal learning settings. Existing knowledge recommendation techniques do not account for dynamic and task-oriented user preferences. The purpose of this paper is to propose a new design of a knowledge recommender system (RS) to fill this research gap and provide guidance for practitioners on how to enhance the effectiveness of workplace learning. Design/methodology/approach This study employs the design science research approach. A novel hybrid knowledge recommendation technique is proposed. An experiment was carried out in a case company to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system design. Quantitative data were collected to investigate the influence of personalized knowledge service on users’ learning attitude. Findings The proposed personalized knowledge RS obtained satisfactory user feedback. The results also show that providing personalized knowledge service can positively influence users’ perceived usefulness of learning. Practical implications This research highlights the importance of providing digital support for workplace learners. The proposed new knowledge recommendation technique would be useful for practitioners and developers to harness information technology to facilitate workplace learning and effect organization learning strategies. Originality/value This study expands the scope of research on RS and workplace learning. This research also draws scholarly attention to the effective utilization of digital techniques, such as a RS, to support user decision making in the workplace.

7/10

Schürmann, E., & Beausaert, S. (2016). What Are Drivers for Informal Learning? European Journal of Training and Development, 40(3), 130–154.

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Purpose: The topic of informal learning at work has received increasing attention in the past years. The purpose of this study is to explore in which informal learning activities employees engage and what are the drivers for informal learning. Design/Methodology/Approach: Semi-structured interviews were taken from ten human resources (HR) and ten marketing employees working at a German machinery manufacturer. Findings: Employees mostly learn informally by talking or collaborating with others, searching information online, feedback giving and seeking from colleagues and supervisors and reading. Next, it was found that organizational drivers, task and job drivers, personal drivers and formal learning influenced employees' informal learning. Background characteristics on the contrary were not found to influence informal learning. Overall, within these categories, the following drivers had the greatest influence on informal learning: commitment to learning and development, feedback as well as interactions with and support from colleagues and supervisors. Research Limitations/Implications: The design of this exploratory qualitative study brings some limitations. Based on the findings, suggestions for future quantitative and intervention studies are done. Practical Implications: The results show how human resources development (HRD) professionals could better support employees' engagement in informal learning and gives an overview of the determinants that could be influenced and in turn have a positive effect on employees' informal learning. Originality/Value: This study is one of the first studies unraveling informal learning as perceived by employees. It develops a comprehensive framework for categorizing drivers for informal learning.

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Informal learning in the workplace : The key role of managers. (2014). Development and Learning in Organizations, 28(2), 26–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLO-02-2014-0007

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– Reviews the latest management developments across the globe and pinpoints practical implications from cutting-edge research and case studies. – This briefing is prepared by an independent writer who adds their own impartial comments and places the articles in context. – A manager's lot is a tough one at the best of times. There is constant pressure to meet business and client needs, often against a backdrop of constantly dwindling resources. Economic uncertainty has ensured that this balancing act has become even more precarious in recent years. Delivering more for much less is very much the order of the day. Certain areas are notoriously vulnerable when the budget axe is wielded. Training and development is a perfect example. However, this is clearly something of a false economy as few companies will be best positioned to move forward if talent is not properly nurtured. Such short-term thinking continues to prevail though. – Provides strategic insights and practical thinking that have influenced some of the world's leading organizations. – The briefing saves busy executives and researchers hours of reading time by selecting only the very best, most pertinent information and presenting it in a condensed and easy-to digest format.

8/10

Michele Rigolizzo, & Zhu Zhu. (2020). Motivating reflection habits and raising employee awareness of learning. Evidence-Based HRM: A Global Forum for Empirical Scholarship, 8(2), 161–175. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBHRM-11-2019-0102

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PurposeWhile research has shown reflection is a valuable part of individual learning, developing reflection habits has remained notoriously difficult, particularly for working adults. We explore whether an intervention of being able to review previous reflections will affect employee engagement in future reflection activities and raise their awareness of learning opportunities at work.Design/methodology/approachWe conducted a large-scale field experiment, including 136 employees from an international bank in Europe, in which participants were asked to reflect twice a week for eight weeks. Participants were randomly assigned to either a group that was given access to their previous reflections, or a group that was not.FindingsWe found that individuals who were able to see their previous reflections wrote significantly more subsequent reflections than the other group. In addition, those who could see their previous reflections used more words related to learning and cognition.Practical implicationsOften employees may feel they are only learning when they attend formal trainings. However, this paper provides concrete guidance for how human resources management (HRM) managers can boost employees’ informal learning and awareness of the learning opportunities inherent in challenging work.Originality/valueThis study furthers research on using HRM interventions to facilitate informal learning activities, in particular, methods to motivate systematic reflections and raising awareness of learning opportunities. Our findings suggest that developing habits of reflection and improving awareness of learning opportunities encompasses more than simply writing reflections, but should include processing previous writings.

Manuti, A., Pastore, S., Scardigno, A. F., Giancaspro, M. L., & Morciano, D. (2015). Formal and Informal Learning in the Workplace: A Research Review. International Journal of Training and Development, 19(1), 1–17.

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The radical economic, social and cultural changes experienced by the labour market within recent decades have helped to highlight the central role played by the learning process in individual career development and organizational success. In such fast‐moving working contexts, skills and competencies rapidly become outdated and need to be continuously implemented and empowered as a strategic factor for global competitiveness. Traditional models of learning both inside and outside of the workplace have become unable to explain the complexity of such a process, weaving between and overlapping formal and informal components. Starting with this premise, the aim of the present paper was to analyse the role of knowledge and experience as important learning frames, which allow the acquisition and development of competencies in the workplace. A human resource development perspective was adopted, aimed at reconciling both the organizational and individual stances implied in the process. The methodology of achieving this was to review the most recent literature on workplace learning, with a special focus on its formal and informal dimensions.

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Social interactions and workplace learning : The influence of job demands and job resources. (2020). Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 34(3), 31–33. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLO-11-2019-0275

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Purpose This paper aims to review the latest management developments across the globe and pinpoint practical implications from cutting-edge research and case studies. Design/methodology/approach This briefing is prepared by an independent writer who adds their own impartial comments and places the articles in context. Findings Businesses that place strong emphasis on workplace learning become better positioned to succeed. Social interactions play a critical role in enabling the informal learning identified as an important aspect of learning overall. Leaders should therefore design tasks to enable such interaction which can become more significant still within culturally heterogeneous firms. Originality/value The briefing saves busy executives and researchers hours of reading time by selecting only the very best, most pertinent information and presenting it in a condensed and easy-to-digest format.

Garcia-Penalvo, F. J., Colomo-Palacios, R., & Lytras, M. D. (2012). Informal Learning in Work Environments: Training with the Social Web in the Workplace. Behaviour & Information Technology, 31(8), 753–755.

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The Internet and its increasing usage has changed informal learning in depth. This change has affected young and older adults in both the workplace and in higher education. But, in spite of this, formal and non-formal course-based approaches have not taken full advantage of these new informal learning scenarios and technologies. The Web 2.0 is a new way for people to communicate across the Internet. Communication is a means of transformation and knowledge exchange. These are the facts that cannot be obviated by the organisations in their training programmes and knowledge management. This special issue is devoted to investigating how informal learning changes or influences online information in Social Web and training strategies in institutions. In order to do so, five papers will present different approaches of informal learning in the workplace regarding Web 2.0 capabilities.

CASAÑ, M. J., HIERRO, N., GALANIS, N., MAYOL, E., & ALIER, M. (2015). Improving the way to Communicate Learning Activities to an Informal Learning Collector. International Journal of Engineering Education, 31(3), 874–883.

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Lifelong Learning has been a growing interest in e-learning research communities, in a similar way as other related kinds of learning (formal, non-formal and informal) already had. In fact, the Tagging Recognition and Acknowledgment of Informal Learning Experiences project proposes a framework to manage these types of learning, giving special attention to informal learning. This project gathers informal learning activities with an Informal Learning Collector. The main way for registering informal learning activities data into the Informal Learning Collector is using push mechanisms where the user explicitly introduces such information. In this paper, we present some evaluation of user opinions about this push communication mechanism, and propose an alternative way to communicate informal learning activities data, by using a pull mechanism. Using the pull mechanism, the Informal Learning Collector collects data directly from external applications. After the introduction of the pull mechanism, Informal Learning Collector users have confirmed that usability has been improved significantly.

Li, J., Brake, G., Champion, A., Fuller, T., Gabel, S., & Hatcher-Busch, L. (2009). Workplace Learning: The Roles of Knowledge Accessibility and Management. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(4), 347–364.

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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine how knowledge management systems have been used by the studied organizations to improve knowledge accessibility and knowledge sharing in order to increase workplace learning. Design/methodology/approach: The study relies on a qualitative multisite case study method. Data were obtained from five organizations at a southern state in the USA. Multiple interviews, onsite observation, and documentation analyses were conducted at each studied organization. Data analysis used open coding and thematic analysis. Results were triangulated based on multiple data sources. Findings: The findings revealed that the learning environment of an organization is important for workplace learning. All studied organizations share a need for a conversion of tacit to explicit knowledge in order to facilitate effective informal learning in the workplace. This research concludes that engineering the learning environment through effective knowledge management should be a cohesive effort of the entire organization and demands congruent support from all levels of the organization. Originality/value: The study expands the understanding of issues related to workplace learning through knowledge accessibility in both business and academic settings. To improve workplace learning, one should not just stipulate technology interventions; other factors, such as the organization's design, work design, and the culture/vision of the organization, all play important roles in the creation of a learning organization that will induce informal learning in the workplace.

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Amitabh, A., & Sinha, S. (2012). The Learning Continuum Formal and Informal Learning Experiences - Enabling Learning and Creation of New Knowledge in an Organization. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning, 5(2), 10–14. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v5i2.2111

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Over the years, there has been a significant shift in the approach towards 'learning' in an organization. The focus of learning is no more limited to only the formal training mediums, such as classroom interventions and elearning programs. The shift in learning paradigm is more towards the creation of new learning solution that provides formal and informal learning, information and collaboration - thereby enabling the formation of a 'personal learning environment.' Now, there is a shift from 'content focus' to 'learner focus' education. This paper will suggest the appropriate use of technologies and processes to create a rich learning environment that includes a broad array of instructions, information resources, and collaborative solutions. The paper will also focus on the areas or situations where the new learning environment can be applied and the ways in which an organization can leverage the full range of its learning continuum.

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Milligan, C., Littlejohn, A., & Margaryan, A. (2014). Workplace Learning in Informal Networks. Journal of Interactive Media in Education.

Learning does not stop when an individual leaves formal education, but becomes increasingly informal, and deeply embedded within other activities such as work. This article describes the challenges of informal learning in knowledge intensive industries, highlighting the important role of personal learning networks. The article argues that knowledge workers must be able to self-regulate their learning and outlines a range of behaviours that are essential to effective learning in informal networks. The article identifies tools that can support these behaviours in the workplace and how they might form a personal work and learning environment.

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7/10

Amitabh, A., & Sinha, S. (2012). The Learning Continuum Formal and Informal Learning Experiences - Enabling Learning and Creation of New Knowledge in an Organization. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning, 5(2), 10–14. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v5i2.2111

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Over the years, there has been a significant shift in the approach towards 'learning' in an organization. The focus of learning is no more limited to only the formal training mediums, such as classroom interventions and elearning programs. The shift in learning paradigm is more towards the creation of new learning solution that provides formal and informal learning, information and collaboration - thereby enabling the formation of a 'personal learning environment.' Now, there is a shift from 'content focus' to 'learner focus' education. This paper will suggest the appropriate use of technologies and processes to create a rich learning environment that includes a broad array of instructions, information resources, and collaborative solutions. The paper will also focus on the areas or situations where the new learning environment can be applied and the ways in which an organization can leverage the full range of its learning continuum.

7/10

Ley, T., Cook, J., Dennerlein, S., Kravcik, M., Kunzmann, C., Pata, K., Purma, J., Sandars, J., Santos, P., Schmidt, A., Al-Smadi, M., & Trattner, C. (2014). Scaling Informal Learning at the Workplace: A Model and Four Designs from a Large-Scale Design-Based Research Effort. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(6), 1036–1048.

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Workplace learning happens in the process and context of work, is multi-episodic, often informal, problem based and takes place on a just-in-time basis. While this is a very effective means of delivery, it also does not scale very well beyond the immediate context. We review three types of technologies that have been suggested to scale learning and three connected theoretical discourses around learning and its support. Based on these three strands and an in-depth contextual inquiry into two workplace learning domains, health care and building and construction, four design-based research projects were conducted that have given rise to designs for scaling informal learning with technology. The insights gained from the design and contextual inquiry contributed to a model that provides an integrative view on three informal learning processes at work and how they can be supported with technology: (1) task performance, reflection and sensemaking; (2) help seeking, guidance and support; and (3) emergence and maturing of collective knowledge. The model fosters our understanding of how informal learning can be scaled and how an orchestrated set of technologies can support this process.

In the last few decades, the workplace has been increasingly recognised as a legitimate environment for learning new skills and knowledge, which in turn enables workers to participate more effectively in ever-changing work environments. Within the workplace, there is the potential for continuous learning to occur not only through formal learning initiatives that are associated with training, but also through informal learning opportunities that are embedded within everyday work activities. This paper surveys the growing body of literature on informal learning, makes some critical observations about the importance of informal learning, and explains the various ways that informal learning can occur in the workplace.

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Nygren, H., Nissinen, K., Hämäläinen, R., & Wever, B. (2019). Lifelong learning: Formal, non‐formal and informal learning in the context of the use of problem‐solving skills in technology‐rich environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(4), 1759–1770. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12807

The evolving technological landscape in the digital era has a crucial influence on lifelong learning and the demand for problem‐solving skills. In this paper, we identify associations between formal, non‐formal and informal learning with sufficient problem‐solving skills in technology‐rich environments (TRE). We focus on adults' problem‐solving skills in TRE as a novel approach to investigate formal, non‐formal and informal learning based on data from the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies. This programme measured 16–64‐year‐old adults' proficiency in problem‐solving skills in TRE. The total sample size was 61 654 individuals from 13 European countries. Our results clearly indicate that the skill levels of more than 50% of adults aged 16–64 years old seem to be insufficient to cope effectively in TRE. The findings suggest that the learning ecologies of adults are a combination of formal, non‐formal and informal learning activities. The overall level of problem‐solving skills in TRE was higher among individuals who indicated that they have participated either formal or non‐formal learning activities, compared to those who have not. However, interestingly, the association between formal learning and problem‐solving skills in TRE was not major. Instead, our results clearly indicate that informal learning seems to be highly associated with sufficient problem‐solving skills in TRE. In practice, we outline those formal, non‐formal and informal learning activities that adults perform when applying the skills in TRE. By recognising these activities undertaken by sufficient problem solvers, we can promote lifelong learning skills. Our findings can also be used as a starting point for future studies on lifelong learning.

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