Here alluding to the cockpit of a ship, or the part of the helm where the steering wheel is

A spyglass, or sailor's telescope

Temperament

Prayer or supplication

A variety of Eurasian willows

Saul, the first king of the Israelites, summons the spirit of the prophet Samuel and tells him, "I am sore distressed; for the Philistines make war against me, and God is departed from me, and answereth me no more, neither by prophets, nor by dreams" (1 Samuel 28:15).

Startle

Monstrous imagining (more literally, a monster in Greek mythology, with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail)

Psalm 27:14 and Psalm 31:24

Hebrews 13:5

Psalm 50:15

Acts 5:31

Psalm 50:15

Checkerboard

Arrived at

A stone's throw, or a very short distance

Supply or storehouse

A cushion forming part of the inside fittings of a carriage

Mustachios

A long moustache, such as a Muslim man might have worn

A variation of the word "mulatto," here used to refer to brown skin

A loop attached to a belt, designed to hold a sword or bayonet

Cords

Long gaiters or leggings of leather, to keep boots and trousers from being spattered with mud

Calf-high or knee-high boots

Breeches or trousers

Feeble

"Yea, they spake against God; they said, Can God furnish a table in the wilderness?" (Psalm 78:19)

Served my purpose

Crusoe's comical failure to anticipate that, the larger his enclosure is, the harder it will be to catch the goats inside

Small streams or rills

Foresight; planning or ingenuity

To have a pardon granted a moment before execution. (A criminal sentenced to hanging would have stood on a ladder with the noose around his neck, and the executioner would kick the ladder out from beneath his feet in order to hang him.)

South-southeast

East-southeast

Grappling-iron

Because they are unleavened

In Latin, literally "a thing which must be remembered"

Served the need

Contrived (ie. a makeshift waistcoat)

God, displeased with the pagan practices of the Israelite king Ahab, sends the prophet Elijah to tell him that a great drought will be inflicted on Israel as punishment. When Ahab grows angry with Elijah, God commands Elijah to hide in the wilderness and sends the ravens to bring him food (1 Kings 17:1-6).

An echo of a line from the Lord's Prayer: "Give us this day our daily bread . . ."

Neither had they failed

To flay or skin them

Lack

A square dozen, or 144 of something

Cook

Fuel

According to one of Christ's parables, a rich man dies and goes to hell, while Lazarus, the leper outside his gates, dies and is taken to Abraham's bosom. When the rich man begs Abraham to send Lazarus down from heaven to grant him reprieve from hellfire, Abraham refuses, telling him, "Between us and you there is a great gulf fixed" (Luke 16:26). Crusoe places himself in Abraham's position of spiritual transcendence over the rest of the world.

A downward slope, so that the boat might slide down into the water.

Solomon, King of Israel and Judah, was said to have built a great temple to Yahweh, which housed the Ark of the Covenant and was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II during the Siege of Jerusalem (587 B.C.)

A small, flat-bottomed Caribbean boat similar to a canoe, but with a sail.

To remove the seed from the husk

In Britain, pudding can refer to a number of sweet and savory dishes, including desserts and various types of sausages made from entrails. Here, it refers to a sweetened bread.

While yeast is necessary to make leavened bread rise, it is still possible to make unleavened, flatter bread without it

Separate the grain from the chaff

Searce; another word for a sieve

Until

To make pastry

Small earthenware pots

Ground

Crusoe's conversations with the parrot are recreational, rather than work

An abbreviation of "Polly"

To my liking

Threshing, or the process of separating the seeds of corn from the husks

A very large frame set with iron teeth that is dragged over arable land to break up clods of earth

As late as the eighteenth century, the heads of executed criminals were displayed on pikes at the southern gatehouse of London bridge.

A two-gallon loaf; Crusoe's crop is so small to begin with, that every grain the birds eat is a significant loss

Occurring between September 22-24, depending on the year

So Crusoe names his parrot

Humboldt penguins are a species native to Chile and Peru

A covered market in Gracechurch Street, London, dating from the fourteenth century

The portrayal of aboriginal cultures as savage or alien has an ample precedent: Herodotus describes a mythical race of man-eating "androphagi," and Shakespeare's Othello talks of encountering "The Cannibals that each other eat, / The Anthropophagi and men whose heads / Do grow beneath their shoulders" (I.iii.143-145)

Spain's colonies at this time included Venezuela and Colombia, so Crusoe's island is probably located off the northern coast of South America.

West-southwest

Eagerly, gladly

A bottle with a square-shaped base, often used for gin

Crusoe will relate the adventure alluded to here in due course, later in the text

An imperial unit of dry volume, approximately 2 gallons

This falls between March 19-21, depending on the year

In this context, meaning humility, rather than embarrassment

Counted

There is no scientific basis for this supposition. More likely, the symptoms Crusoe describes were a result of scurvy, a condition caused by vitamin C deficiency and common among sailors.

A woody shrub native to South America

God grants the hungry Israelites manna to eat as they cross the desert, bound for the promised land (Exodus 16:1-13)

Food generally, not necessarily restricted to animal's flesh

Physiologically, the four humors (sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic) were thought to emit "vapors" that ascended to the brain and shaped one's temperament. When the humors were unbalanced, the vapors caused distemper and illness.

An imperial hundredweight, or about 112 lb

Alight

More than 56 lb (a full hundredweight is 112 lb)

Violent altercation

Defoe's scientific reasoning is interesting, but inaccurate: there is, in fact, no causal link between seismic activity and hurricanes.

An astonishingly accurate observation, given that Defoe had probably never experienced an earthquake himself, and that plate tectonic theory was only introduced in the 20th century.

Crusoe will describe this predicament at greater length farther along in the narrative (i.e. "More about this later.")

Chicken's food; in this case, barley (referred to here sometimes as corn), which Crusoe realizes must have germinated and sprouted.

Wooden planks from which barrels are made.

A typical wooden barrel, consisting of vertical wooden staves bound with lateral metal hoops.

A roundlet, or, in wine-measure, a barrel holding about 48 gallons.

Fearful, apprehensive, or wary.

An open receptacle for carrying mortar, bricks, stones, or coal.

The cylindrical shaft running through the center of a wheel, upon which it pivots.

The Brazil Ironwood, sometimes called the Leopard Tree, has yellow flowers and extremely hard, spotted wood.

Shallow

Overturned

Storehouse

A tool like a pickax, with a blade at right angles to the handle.

Some subsequent editions misread this word as the intransitive verb "to work," printing the line as "I set my self to enlarge my Cave, and work farther into the Earth." However, the first edition treats it as a noun.

Crowbars

Economized or eked out, so they would last

Catholic

The 9th parallel north intersects both Colombia and Venezuela, from which we can estimate that Crusoe's island is somewhere off the northern coast of South America. [Insert map here.]

240 lb.

Had the explosive gunpowder caught fire from the lightning, Crusoe would ironically not have survived the explosion to have suffered harm at the hands of man or beast.

Radius

The cross-beams attached at right angles to the masts, from which the various sails hang

A large rope used in warping or mooring a ship

A large cask, or a quantity sufficient to fill a hogshead

Here not referring exclusively to an arsenal of weaponry, but more generally to Crusoe's store of provisions.

Eager

Crowbars

A stone on which to sharpen stone tools

A container for gunpowder, made from an ox or buffalo horn.

A kind of liqueur

Medicinal concoctions, often consisting of brandy or whiskey mixed with various spices.

Master of the ship

Ingenuity and determination (archaic usage)

The forward part of a ship below the main deck, usually the crew's living quarters.

One eighth of a mile, or 220 yards.

did not comprise a single pair

Crusoe compares himself to a criminal condemned to be hanged, who receives a last-minute pardon or reduced sentence. Bleeding was thought to release adverse humors from the body, in this case those produced by the shock of the lightened sentence.

Approximately three and a half miles

Death blow

Towards the rear of the boat

In such a position that the land intercepts the wind, so that it does not buffet the boat.

"The wild sea"

The hull probably bashed in

Caribbean islands

The Amazon River extends from Peru through Brazil, and the Orinoco River from Venezuela to Colombia. [Insert map here.] These details help the reader to estimate whereabouts Crusoe's island is.

This clause can be rather misleading: Defoe means here not Guinea, the African country for which Crusoe was bound, but the Guianas, a region in South America to the north of Brazil. [Insert map here.]

Feverish delirium prevalent in the tropics.

The degree, the primary unit if latitude, can be subdivided twice into smaller units: each degree consists of 60 minutes, and each minute of 60 seconds.

An archipelago off the coast of Brazil, northwest of Cape St. Augustine. [Insert map here.]

[Insert map of Brazil depicting the Cape St. Augustine here.]

Presumably because slave traders needed a special license from the Spanish or Portuguese crown.

lacking

An country south of Guinea-Bissau and north of Sierra Leone, along the west coast of Africa. [insert map here]

In reality, the sugar and tobacco plantations of colonial Brazil were heavily dependent on slave labor and the trans-Atlantic slave trade. In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery.

[Insert a map of Brazil with Salvador highlighted here]

A hundredweight, also known as a centum weight or quintal, equal to eight stone, or about 112 lb according to the imperial system. (The American hundredweight, by contrast, equals 100 lb.)

British pounds are also referred to as pounds sterling.

Portugal colonized Brazil in the late sixteenth century and instituted the lucrative sugar plantation system, which relied on African and Native American slave labor. In the seventeenth century, Brazil was the world's leading exporter of sugar.

A gold or silver trade coin, formerly current in most European countries.

This duration is actually remarkably short. Merchant vessels carrying slaves and cargo could take anywhere from four weeks to several months to travel from the Gold Coast to the Americas.

A bay near Salvador. [Insert map of Brazil with the Bay of All-Saints highlighted here.]

Eighty Spanish dollars ("Pieces of eight" were so called because one was worth eight Spanish reales.)

Down to the smallest detail; to the highest degree

INSERT NOTE HERE.

INSERT NOTE HERE.

European merchant vessels would have carried salt, gold, and slaves away from Africa, and sugar and spices back from Brazil and the Indies respectively.

The area south of Morocco, near modern Senegal, was an epicenter for British trade in salt and slaves. [Insert map of west coast of Africa here.]

"Bore" refers to the interior of the barrel of a gun, and the diameter of the bore determines the calibre. Crusoe's gun, then, is musket calibre.

Bullets

There is a geographical inconsistency here. Crusoe and Xury are somewhere along the southwest Moroccan coast if the Canary Islands are close by. Therefore, they are to the southwest of their starting point at Sale, which is in northwest Morocco. However, Crusoe claims to have sailed south and east of Sale - this is, in fact, impossible, since traveling southeast of Sale would entail "sailing" inland. [Insert map of Morocco and Canary Islands here]

A small portion of a drink; a swig or sip.

If any of his Master's men had tried to follow him, he was by now so far away that they would have given up.

The North African coast, between Tripoli and Morocco.

Aimed

Guns

Crotch

A coastal city in southwest Spain [insert map of Spain here]

A wading bird of mottled brown color with a long, slender beak. [Insert picture of a curlew here.]

A light rowboat carried aboard large merchant and war vessels.

Shifted from one side of the vessel to the other when running before the wind.

Moor

Treatment I experienced there

A city in northwest Morocco.

The battery of cannon located on the side of the ship; cannon fire.

The Equator

Feverish delirium

Three hundred British pounds.

5 lb, 9 oz.

Quantity of capital or valuables

Forty pounds

Person with whom one regularly takes meals.

Common sailor

The Biblical Jonah boarded a ship bound for Tarshish, but was thrown overboard and swallowed by a whale when the crew discovered that he was fleeing God's commandment, and held him responsible for the violent storms encountered by their ship.

Another allusion to the Parable of the Prodigal Son, when the father kills the fatted calf to feast and celebrate his ruined son's return (Luke 15:23).

If the boat was crushed or damaged while running aground, he would reimburse their master.

An area of foreland along the North Norfolk coast of England.

Coal barges.

(Shinagel 12; footnote 6)

In adverse weather conditions, one may cut away the mast of a ship to prevent its capsizing. Without the force of the heavy wind on the mast, the boat has a lower probability of tipping over.

Senior crew member.

At the mercy of all risks/dangers.

The lower deck of a ship, just below the main deck and above the ballast; lower classes of passengers often purchased cheaper tickets to travel in this part of the ship.

A very large, heavy spare anchor stored in the waist of the ship, used in emergencies.

Come loose.

With the bow (the foremost part of the hull) in the water.

Remained anchored; floated stationary.

Equipment used to anchor a ship.

A stretch of sea east of the coastal town of Great Yarmouth, in the English county of Norfolk.