these oppositely charged ions attract each other, forming ionic bonds.

Those that lose electrons become positively charged, and those that gain electrons become negatively charged.

octet rule, and it is a key to understanding why compounds form.

Eventually, as oxygen continued to be made, absorption of oxygen in mineral precipitation leveled off, and dissolved oxygen gas started filling the oceans and eventually bubbling out into the atmosphere.

Early life in the Archean and earlier is poorly documented in the fossil record, but chemical evidence and evolutionary theory state that this life would have been single-celled photosynthetic organisms such as cyanobacteria in stromatolites. Fossil cyanobacteria in these stromatolites produced free oxygen in the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes, i.e. single-celled organisms (archaea and bacteria) with simple cells that lack a cell nucleus and other organelles.

Ediacaran fauna

Proterozoic Eon

The Proterozoic Eon, meaning “earlier life,” is the eon of time after the Archean eon and ranges from 2.5 billion years old to 541 million years old. During this time, most of the central parts of the continents had formed and the plate tectonic process had started.

a solution called normal saline is commonly administered intravenously in hospitals.

sodium chloride (NaCl), which is a simple compound

One hypothesis is that life arose from the chemical environment of the Earth’s early atmosphere and oceans, which was very different than today.

A craton has two main parts: the shield, which is crystalline basement rock near the surface, and the platform made of sedimentary rocks covering the shield. Most cratons have remained relatively unchanged with most tectonic activity having occurred around cratons instead of within them. Whether they were created by plate tectonics or another process, Archean continents gave rise to the Proterozoic continents that now dominate our planet

In order for plate tectonics to work as it does currently, it necessarily must have continents. However, the easiest way to create continental material is via assimilation and differentiation of existing continents (see Chapter 4).

partially molten surface, volcanism, and asteroid impacts.

However, it is hard to know if Earth processes could have changed the water’s isotopic signature over the last 4-plus billion years. It is possible that all three sources contributed to the origin of Earth’s water.

There is possibly even evidence of life existing over 4.0 billion years ago. However, the most reliable record for early life, the microfossil record, starts at 3.5 billion years ago.

Geoscientists use the geological time scale to assign relative age names to events and rocks, separating major events in Earth’s history based on significant changes as recorded in rocks and fossils.

Fusion is a steady and predictable process,

Another process must be responsible for creating the other 90 heavier elements.

supernova

Doppler effect

big-bang theory

nother strong indication of the big-bang is cosmic microwave background radiation. Cosmic radiation was accidentally discovered by Arno Penzias (1933–) and Robert Woodrow Wilson (1936–) [8] when they were trying to eliminate background noise from a communication satellite. They discovered very faint traces of energy or heat that are omnipresent across the universe. This energy was left behind from the big bang, like an echo.

Spectroscopy confirms that hydrogen makes up about 74% of all matter in the universe.

Since most stars contain plentiful amounts of hydrogen, the main phase may last billions of years, during which their size and energy output remains relatively steady.

In a supernova, the collapse of the core suddenly halts, creating a massive outward-propagating shock wave.

The giant phase in a star’s life occurs when the star runs out of hydrogen for fusion. If a star is large enough, it has sufficient heat and pressure to start fusing helium into heavier elements.

An element such as hydrogen combines or fuses with other hydrogen atoms in the core of a star to become a new element, in this case, helium.

The Doppler effect is the same process that changes the pitch of the sound of an approaching car or ambulance from high to low as it passes. When an object emits waves, such as light or sound, while moving toward an observer, the wavelengths get compressed. In sound, this results in a shift to a higher pitch. When an object moves away from an observer, the wavelengths are extended, producing a lower-pitched sound.

Fusion is a nuclear reaction in which two or more nuclei, the centers of atoms, are forced together and combine creating a new larger atom. This reaction gives off a tremendous amount of energy, usually as light and solar radiation

Even white light from the Sun, which seems like an uninterrupted continuum of wavelengths, has gaps in some wavelengths. The gaps correspond to elements present in the Earth’s atmosphere that act as filters for specific wavelengths

Spectroscopy confirms that hydrogen makes up about 74% of all matter in the universe.

redshift

e Doppler effect is the same process that changes the pitch of the sound of an approaching car or ambulance from hi

upiter’s gravity

The planets continued to grow over the course of many thousands or millions of years, as material from the protoplanetary disc was added

Study of asteroids and meteorites help geologist to determine the age of Earth and the composition of its core, mantle, and crust. Jupiter’s gravity may also explain Mars’ smaller mass, with the larger planet consuming material as it migrated from the inner to the outer edge of the solar system

This temperature differentiation resulted in the inner four planets of the solar system becoming rocky, and the outer four planets becoming gas giants.

Jupiter’s massive gravity further shaped the solar system and growth of the inner rocky planets. As the nebula started to coalesce into planets, Jupiter’s gravity accelerated the movement of nearby materials, generating destructive collisions rather than constructively gluing material together [14]. These collisions created the asteroid belt, an unfinished planet, located between Mars and Jupiter.

The planetary composition of the gas giants is clearly different from the rocky planets. Their size is also dramatically different for two reasons: First, the original planetary nebula contained more gases and ices than metals and rocks. There was abundant hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and less silicon and iron, giving the outer planets more building material. Second, the stronger gravitational pull of these giant planets allowed them to collect large quantities of hydrogen and helium, which could not be collected by the weaker gravity of the smaller planets.

Jupiter’s gravity accelerated the movement of nearby materials, generating destructive collisions rather than constructively gluing material together [14]. These collisions created the asteroid belt, an unfinished planet, located between Mars and Jupiter. This asteroid belt is the source of most meteorites that currently impact the Earth.

The nebular hypothesis is the idea that a spinning cloud of dust made of mostly light elements, called a nebula, flattened into a protoplanetary disk, and became a solar system consisting of a star with orbiting planets [12]. The spinning nebula collected the vast majority of material in its center, which is why the sun Accounts for over 99% of the mass in our solar system.

We quickly cut through and push to the background all kinds of sights, smells, sounds, and other stimuli, but how do we decide what to select and what to leave out?

Perceptual errors involving people and assumptions of difference can be especially awkward, if not offensive.

For example, have you ever been waiting to be helped in a business and the clerk assumes that you and the person standing beside you are together?

We tend to pay attention to information that we perceive to meet our needs or interests in some way.

Think about the couple that won’t stop talking during the movie

The principle of unity means that each letter or number represents one idea. One concrete way to help reduce the amount of ideas you include per item is to limit each letter or number to one complete sentence.

Think of each main point as a miniature speech within your larger speech. Each main point will have a central idea, meet some part of your specific purpose, and include supporting material from your research that relates to your thesis.

Second, most of the content on research databases has gone through editorial review, which means a professional editor or a peer editor has reviewed the material to make sure it is credible and worthy of publication. Most content on websites is not subjected to the same review process, as just about anyone with Internet access can self-publish information on a personal website, blog, wiki, or social media page.

Unless the guidelines or occasion for your speech suggest otherwise, you should balance your interview data with the other sources in your speech. Don’t let your references to the interview take over your speech.

Trust me, if you’ve thought of a topic to do your speech on, someone else has thought of it, too, and people have written and published about it. Reference librarians can help you find that information.

Speaking about something you’re familiar with and interested in can also help you manage speaking anxiety. While it’s good to start with your personal interests, some speakers may get stuck here if they don’t feel like they can make their interests relevant to the audience.

View having a captive classroom audience as a challenge, and use this space as a public speaking testing laboratory. You can try new things and push your boundaries more, because this audience is very forgiving and understanding since they have to go through the same things you do. In general, you may have to work harder to maintain the attention of a captive audience.

You may not be able to assume much more, but that’s enough to add some tailored points to your speech that will make the content more relevant.

When considering beliefs, we are dealing with what we believe “is or isn’t” or “true or false.” We come to hold our beliefs based on what we are taught, experience for ourselves, or have faith in.

While this may be unavoidable, speakers can still think critically about what content they include in the speech and the effects it may have.

There are five groups of early mammals in the fossil record, based primarily on fossil teeth, the hardest bone in vertebrate skeletons. For the purpose of this text, the most important group is the Eupantotheres, which diverges into the two main groups of mammals, the marsupials (Sinodelphys) and placentals or eutherians (Eomaia) in the Cretaceous and then diversified in the Cenozoic. The marsupials dominated on the isolated island continents of South America and Australia, and many went extinct in South America with the introduction of placental mammals. Some well-known mammal groups have been highly studied with interesting evolutionary stories in the Cenozoic

Melted rock spheres [138], a special type of “shocked” quartz called stishovite, that only is found at impact sites, was found in many places around the world. The huge impact created a strong thermal pulse that could be responsible for global forest fires [141], strong acid rains [142], a corresponding abundance of ferns, the first colonizing plants after a forest fire [143], enough debris thrown into the air to significantly cool temperatures afterward [144; 145], and a 2-km high tsunami inferred from deposits found from Texas to Alabama.

The Paleozoic era had two smaller mass extinctions, but these were not as large as the Permian Mass Extinction, also known as the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event.

The word Phanerozoic means “visible life.”

Blackness, as a community, has endured for generations, and that is a testament to the strength of our legacy.

Black Lives Matter is a unique contribution that goes beyond extrajudicial killings of Black people by police and vigilantes….Black Lives Matter affirms the lives of Black queer and trans folks, disabled folks, Black-undocumented folks, folks with records, women and all Black lives along the gender spectrum. It centers those that have been marginalized within Black liberation movements. It is a tactic to (re)build the Black liberation movement (Garza, 2014).

Intersectionality is a process of identifying and embracing all aspects of one’s identity, and Lorde emphasizes how this practice allows us to fully see one another’s humanity, as there is strength in diversity and difference.

For example, how racial/ethnic identity intersects with gender identity, sexuality, class background, etc. to shape the experiences of women of color. Furthermore, intersectionality examines the intersecting structures of power (such as white supremacy, patriarchy, and capitalism) that limit, marginalize, or oppress people based on race, class, gender, gender identity, immigration status, national origin, sexual orientation, language, religion, spirituality, ability, tribal citizenship, sovereignty, age, and other notable markers of difference. Such intersecting oppressions might extend to an institutional level, interpersonal level (between individuals) or an internalized level (i.e. believing racist and sexist stereotypes about self-worth).

_____

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But it would be very uncomfortable to shrink you down to 5mm tall and insert you into the computer just so you could issue a command three billion times per second. So instead, you must write down your instructions in advance. We call these stored instructions a program and the act of writing these instructions down and getting the instructions to be correct programming.

These days, most computers also have a Network Connection to retrieve information over a network. We can think of the network as a very slow place to store and retrieve data that might not always be "up". So in a sense, the network is a slower and at times unreliable form of Secondary Memory. While most of the detail of how these components work is best left to computer builders, it helps to have some terminology so we can talk about these different parts as we write our programs. As a programmer, your job is to use and orchestrate each of these resources to solve the problem that you need to solve and analyze the data you get from the solution. As a programmer you will mostly be "talking" to the CPU and telling it what to do next. Sometimes you will tell the CPU to use the main memory, secondary memory, network, or the input/output devices.

The Secondary Memory is also used to store information, but it is much slower than the main memory. The advantage of the secondary memory is that it can store information even when there is no power to the computer. Examples of secondary memory are disk drives or flash memory (typically found in USB sticks and portable music players).

The Central Processing Unit (or CPU) is the part of the computer that is built to be obsessed with "what is next?" If your computer is rated at 3.0 Gigahertz, it means that the CPU will ask "What next?" three billion times per second. You are going to have to learn how to talk fast to keep up with the CPU.

While this book is not intended for professional programmers, professional programming can be a very rewarding job both financially and personally. Building useful, elegant, and clever programs for others to use is a very creative activity. Your computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) usually contains many different programs from many different groups of programmers, each competing for your attention and interest. They try their best to meet your needs and give you a great user experience in the process. In some situations, when you choose a piece of software, the programmers are directly compensated because of your choice.

Our "personal information analysis assistant" quickly told us that the word "to" was used sixteen times in the first three paragraphs of this chapter. This very fact that computers are good at things that humans are not is why you need to become skilled at talking "computer language". Once you learn this new language, you can delegate mundane tasks to your partner (the computer), leaving more time for you to do the things that you are uniquely suited for. You bring creativity, intuition, and inventiveness to this partnership.

If we knew this language, we could tell the computer to do tasks on our behalf that were repetitive. Interestingly, the kinds of things computers can do best are often the kinds of things that we humans find boring and mind-numbing. For example, look at the first three paragraphs of this chapter and tell me the most commonly used word and how many times the word is used. While you were able to read and understand the words in a few seconds, counting them is almost painful because it is not the kind of problem that human minds are designed to solve. For a computer the opposite is true, reading and understanding text from a piece of paper is hard for a computer to do but counting the words and telling you how many times the most used word was used is very easy for the computer:

We are surrounded in our daily lives with computers ranging from laptops to cell phones. We can think of these computers as our "personal assistants" who can take care of many things on our behalf. The hardware in our current-day computers is essentially built to continuously ask us the question, "What would you like me to do next?"

You can write programs for many reasons, ranging from making your living to solving a difficult data analysis problem to having fun to helping someone else solve a problem. This book assumes that everyone needs to know how to program, and that once you know how to program you will figure out what you want to do with your newfound skills.

PS III

And

Some of the most common elements in a piece of literature include: Setting Characters Plot (story or play) or structure (poem) Tone/Mood Themes Symbolism and Figurative Language

to write a strong paper, you will need to examine a text both subjectively and objectively. If you only write about your personal reaction to a book, there won't be much to support your argument except your word alone. Thus, you will need to use some facts from the text to support your argument. Rather than trying to evaluate every nuance of a text all at once, you should start with the basics: character and plot. From there, you can examine the theme of the work and then move on to the finer points such as the writing itself. For instance, when determining how you want to analyze a piece of literature, you might want to ask yourself the following series of questions: Who are the characters? What are they doing? Why and how are they doing it? Do their actions relate to any broader topics or issues? How does the author convey this through their writing?

Sidney would probably consider most people momes

Exercise 2: What is a program?

Primary type (the one I identify with most closely)

T

F

F

T

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

All of the above

Participating in clubs, organized activities

Going to parties

Talking on the telephone, texting, e-mail

Going to religious services

Attending classes

Cleaning house

Volunteering your time for a good cause

Setting your own schedule

Engaging in your hobbies

Having a positive romantic relationship

Being your own boss

Exercising, being physically active

Eating nice meals out

Going to movies or entertainments

Meeting new people

Looking good, personal hygiene

Working your job

Getting out in nature

Enjoying time alone

Watching television

Having nice clothing

Studying and reading textbooks

Being liked by others

Shopping

Traveling to new places

5

4

1

3

0

5

5

3

2

2

5

5

3

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

T

F

F

T

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

All of the above

5

0

3

5

4

5

3

5

4

5

5

3

5

3

5

5

3

1

3

5

2

5

5

3

5

4

2

4

0

5

2

0

2

4

3

5

5

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

They use several credit cards so they don’t have to worry about finances until after graduation.

They have few friends, because social relationships distract one from academics.

They eat fast food so they have more time for studying.

They develop their writing skills.

They avoid talking with their instructors, so they can remain anonymous.

They know how to speed-read so they don’t have to underline or highlight in their textbooks.

They know better than to try to think on their own.

because

They know how to stay motivated.

__________________________________________________________________

They develop their writing skills.

They know how to stay motivated.

__________________________________________________________________

used 3 of the communication Characteristics