Here is another one of Whitman's lists, which sometimes are contraries: man or woman, days or nights, depressions or exaltations, etc. He seems to use the opposites of things a lot, perhaps to show the unity in everything. Even considering one's differences, there are more characteristics that bind things together and make them one.

Here is one of Whitman's uses of the em dash. He seems to want that extra pause, like in the ellipsis, but not as much in length. He also lists things, like in other stanzas, where he lists people of different status or occupation, some that even coincide with one another. He actually uses a semi-colon here, which is not common for most of his stanzas, and coincidentally this stanza is longer with more lines.

The opening lines of "Song of Myself" introduce the themes of transcendentalism and interconnectedness and carries a somewhat sexual connotation: the sharing of atoms. Statements like these were very controversial at the time because they held a suggestive, provocative undertone. Whitman wrote about intimacy and even homosexual relations, which was unheard of in his time period. The idea of "celebrating" one's self in a "song of myself" leaves room for the imagination and curiosity.

Once again, these ideas promote transcendentalism, since the speaker emphasizes his soul and its abilities. He also, like Emily Dickinson, decides to capitalize the word Soul, which almost gives it a special kind of power. Then again, he uses the word "loafe," which would be the third time in 23 stanzas. He personifies his own soul, giving it a "voice," and saying that nothing else he wants but to hear his own Soul.

Here, Whitman prompts the reader that instead of depending on other sources to interpret or absord information, he should take the time to be "one" with the situation itself. This is one part of Whitman's individuality, an example of transcendentalism. Although we as humans are all connected, we stand alone in our own perceptions.

According to the Oxford-English Dictionary, to loafe is to "spend one's time in an aimless, idle way." However, the spelling of the word strikes my interest, since Whitman spells it with an added 'e.' I find Whitman's use of the word to be interesting, since he does use it twice in the same stanza. These stanzas are written in free verse--Whitman's preferred style--and vary in length. He also uses a variety of punctuation, especially the comma and the em dash, which suggests that he wants his readers to take that pause--however not as long as the ellipsis pause.

Definition: hard, unyielding, unmerciful.

This word choice provides a star image of a cold-hearted employer, further proving the author's point.

Definition: what we would now call a necktie.

This is just another article of clothing that, if missing or in poor condition, would be noticed, proving the author's point.

Definition: indeed (often used ironically or to express surprise or indignation).

This is merely a tool used to emphasize her point.

Hugh Blair was a Presbyterian priest and author. He had published over eight major works, often in volumes. HE often published anonymously. Some of his better known anonymous works were his edited versions of Shakespeare's masterpieces. He capitalized on the notion of one rising above their station, and believed one could gain power from the beauty of nature and art.

Because people of this time period judged clothing harshly, it would make sense that society especially judged what women wore and how they presented themselves. She mentions two men in this passage--John Jones and Senator Rouser--and how whenever they spot, the reporter failed to comment on his attire. Since men didn't want women being knowledgeable or informed in the first place, in fear that a woman could be smarter than a man, it makes sense why they would find anything to degrade these women.She is using satire here, saying, "How are we to know how good a speaker is without knowing what he wears?" It is irrelevant and she addresses this subtly.

According to the Oxford-English Dictionary, broadcloth is "Clothing fabric of fine twilled wool or worsted, or plain-woven cotton" and kerseymere is "A fine twilled woollen cloth." Fern, although disguised, seems to be a feminist and one who certainly supports women's rights. She even attended a women's suffrage meeting, mentioned in this piece specifically. In this anecdote, Fern tales a story of her and her husband, calling sewing "women's never-failing resort." Some men thought women should stay sewing or tending the house and not writing, so this would be considered satirical.

This is a perfect example of Whitman's transcendental work. The whole concept of transcendentalism is the idea of the self--the idea of expanding one's reality and higher-consciousness. In transcendentalism, there is no limits or boundaries, which is why Leaves of Grass is so intimate and controversial. Whitman connects all of us, from every age, race, gender, social status, etc. Anything that could potentially divide us, Whitman uses to bind us. Thus, in these lines, Whitman is saying that although books are metaphysical, he is more intrigued by the morning light and moonlight. Most transcendentalists would agree with this, that the earth was more enticing than anything man-made (like a book).

John Godfrey Saxe was an American poet, born in 1816 in Highgate, Vermont. . He was most famous for his retelling of the tale, "The Blind Men and the Elephant." Unsuccessful, he ran for governor of Vermont in 1859 as a democrat, and his support of popular sovereignty made him quite unpopular. Popular sovereignty can be defined as "the principle that the authority of state and its government is created and sustained by the consent of its people." Fern seems to be mocking Saxe, since he failed to become president, and she writes it as "Governor of Vermont" to almost emphasize this. Perhaps she was one of many who disagreed with his beliefs, especially popular sovereignty, and the idea that people should not interfere with slavery.

The Anti-Slavery Bugle was a weekly newsletter published from June 20, 1845 to May 4, 1861. The paper's motto was "No Union With Slaveholders." Not only did it print great works like "Ar'nt I A Woman," but many meeting times and places were openly published in this paper, along with editorials about relevent matters, and letters. For the Bugle to publish her work, it can very safely be assumed that Truth became a common topic in any household in the Bugle's circuit.![]http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83035487/1845-06-20/ed-1/seq-1/

Here, Truth discusses the power of women working together in numbers. At this time, women did not have the right to vote, especially not black women such as herself, but women were starting to work together on this issue. Women would not receive the right to vote until 1919, but Truth was definitely an advocate for gender equality. She believes in the power of a woman, and she believes that if God's first woman was strong enough to flip the world upside down, then women together could flip it back around. Thus, women together could make the world a better place.

In this time period, the Bible is well-known by most members of the community, and Thoreau's harsh desripction of this tax-collector calls to mind biblical passages, such as readings from the books of Luke and Matthew, where the terms "tax collector" and "sinners" rarely occur without the other, creating a distinct repulsion for tax-collectors. No doubt Thoreau would not have realized this biblical connection, honing in on a pre-existing distaste for tax-collectors.

William Paley was an English writer who wrote "The Duty of Submission to Civil Government," which Thoreau greatly opposed. Paley, a Christian, clergyman, and philosopher, fought against revolution and any kind of government rebellion or resistance. He believed it was "the will of God" to obey one's government no matter the circumstances. Paley embraced natural science and anatomy, and in some of his work, he carried the metaphor of a watch--which resulted in the Watchmaker Theory. This theory held the belief that the world compared to a watch.

Interestingly enough, a powder-monkey, as described by the Oxford-English Dictionary, is "a boy employed on a sailing warship to carry powder to the guns." Here, Thoreau the men involved in war and questions their humanity, if industrialization has dehumanized them. This goes along with existentialism and transcendentalism, since both questioned one's existence and acknowledged the soul. Here, Thoreau believes the men are not men at all but products of war.

According to the Oxford DIctionary, the word "posse comitatus" refers to the Latin term, meaning "power or force of the county" (Wikipedia). It can also refer to the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878, signed by President Hayes. This Act "prohibited the use of the military in civilian law enforcement." Wikipedia also does a nice job explaining this Act, which limited the use of armies in domestic American disputes. Thus, the American Act limits the power of the army in daily enforcement, which would be the opposite of the term itself. Thoreau references this term to compare the working-men to that of machines, where they fulfil their duties in order to avoid federal punishment.

The word "Mammon," as described by the Oxford-English Dictionary, refers to "the evil influence or false object of worship and devotion." This word is derived from the Greek word mamonas, taken from New Testaments Matt 6.24 and Luke 16:9-3). Here, Douglass seems to be saying that on Independence Day, Mammon backs off for a bit, since even he recognizes the day's importance. Wealth and greed don't play a part in this day since the independece process was so important and dignified.

A mix between "dotard" and "bastard," the word "dastard," as described by the Oxford-English Dictionary, is a "dishonourable or despicable man." Here, Douglass makes a point that America was justified for breaking away from Britain, and any man who disagrees with this would be a dastard. However, the people who opposed Britain used to cause troubles within society, and he is using this comparison to tie into his own enslavement. Douglass felt trapped by his circumstances, although abolition was considered taboo at the time, like independence from Britain at one point.

A reference to the Old Testament. This raises a question about how Douglass might be comparing the US to Babylon. Discuss?

You will be saved by God if you help the Africans. This is a good example of both Evangelistic and revolutionary tones.

Negroes must be refined, as sugar is, to join this angelic train. Perhaps this is her way of calling out the hypocrisy of evangelism. Sure, anyone can be saved, but they must be refined to our standards first.

In the anthology, it is noted that in several poems, "Wheatley variously registered her racial self-consciousness" (1359). I, too, agree that she does so through the use of the word "Ethiop," but in "Black and Unmarked," Cima also suggests, " Wheatley surely was aware of this sexual double standard" (21). They argue that the reference "marks the speaker more specifically as a young black woman speaking to the white boys" (21).

This is a good example of how Wheatley writes with a tone that appeals to and is understood by Evangelists.

Here, Wheatley writes praising a British monarch. Van Engen suggests, "Wheatley's shift to a London publisher reveals her acute sense of audience: "She dropped all of her anti-British selections, which were to have been published in the rejected American volume, and substituted several flattering'" (Van Engen, 8).

This poem embodies the religious movement during this time in America. "Between 1740 and 1776, evangelical fire had burned across British North America, stirring the passions of the people irrespective of their race or gender, class or creed. At the center of the firestorm lay millennialism—the idea that an “Impartial Savior” promised everyone, be he low or wretched sinner or downtrodden African, grace and therefore paradise" (Bly, 443).

"In publishing elegies on her grandchildren, she [Bradstreet] implicitly offered a new value and respect to the process of mourning, bringing to life the actual experiences of individual bereavement" (Van Engen, 9). Van Engen goes further to say "Bradstreet's elegies create a public opening for private sorrow" (9). His argument is that Bradstreet was "advertising the domestic," and I agree. In this poem, in particular, Bradstreet's identity as grieving grandmother is very apparent. And although she grieves, Bradstreet submits total control to God-He controls destiny (a very Puritan motif). "Is by His hand alone that guides nature and fate."

Leaves it up to God's will

This line exemplifies the different spheres which men and women lived during this time period.

Van Engen notes that "All the woman has left is her poetry. Yet this poetry acts. As it gains readers, it turns attention from men to women. It raises the wife's place and predicament to the level of public consciousness. The "widowed wife" becomes the only voice readers hear, her view is the only view that counts" (Van Engen, 9).

She has so much to say, but the husband wouldn't understand.

"These feelings reveal the damage of the public sphere: it turns wives into widows" (Van Engen, 9).

Bradstreet publicizes the feelings of a woman who is confined to her private home. Because she cannot leave the house, she must call for an intermediary, but in "Advertising the Domestic," Van Engen suggests that the act of publicizing these feelings and making the words to print, serves as an intermediary itself (Van Engen, 9).

The wife's body serves as a home for her husband. The sun is not central, according to Van Engen. Rather, "its movements revolve around the home and the woman herself who is a 'welcome house'" (8).

In the article "Advertising the Domestic," Van Engen argues that Bradstreet invites the public readers into her private home setting.In the title alone, Bradstreet reveals one wife's experience and feelings without her husband (8).

Adding this particular word in the poem emphasizes and symbolizes her skill as a writer.

She does this a few other times during the poem to reiterate her passion and career.

Here, Bradstreet is reflecting on Du Bartas' poetry and it's effect in society. She misses that she had the inspiration of the muses to help her write this poem and her other poems, like Du Bartas had for this written literature.

The overall tone of the poem is bold, sarcastic, and bitter. As she goes on to explain the sexist differences between the genders, she becomes fired up and more passionate about showing her readers that significant inequality with her male counterparts.

Yes, America claims to be free, but who is really free? Not the slaves. While praising Washington, the hero, Wheatley also makes distinct points about the problems in America relating to slavery. In "Poetry and American Revolutionary Identity," Ennis points out "the poems Wheatley did write reveal a continued awareness of the connection between military glory and poetic success, and a keen sense of the shifting national consciousness." -meaning that because Wheatley knew that poems on military success would have a wider audience, she made big points in those poems.

In the article, "Poetry and American Revolutionary Identity," Ennis suggests "Wheatley did not necessarily associate America with democracy, but instead with a sense of paternal monarchalism mediated though neoclassical poetic figures" (10).

Sor Juana is saying that great people do not come from the same place. I believe she is also implying that great writers are not defined by only one gender. She believes that good work can come from men and women. She also is saying that when a person is skilled, they should not only celebrate themselves. I think she wants this man from Peru to see the skills in people other than being closed minded.

God of music. His task is to make the sun set each day. Also known as the Archer; the god of healing, giving the science of medicine to man; the god of light; and the god of truth.

People from all over the world traveled to find out their future from him.

reference: http://www.greekmythology.com/Olympians/Apollo/apollo.html

Perhaps the name of the man from Peru who criticized her?

Since Sor Juana is a nun, she will never marry. She is saying that you were considered a woman if you married. Sor Juana is stating that she is not defined as a woman because of her situation. She rejects the idea of femininity and the cultural limitations. She is not limited to a gender as a writer.

This language speaks to the authenticity, or lack of, regarding Mather's insight into the Salem trials. He states plainly that he was not in attendance during the proceedings. Obviously, spectral evidence loses clout, for no other reason other than the writer's absence from the trials. Modern minds have no trouble disproving Mather's suggestions, but European superstitions die hard.

Many of the afflicted were said to have visible marks from sustaining injury by supposed witch attacks. The "containment" of this evil was possible since often times when accused witches were seized and tried, the marks went away. However, in the case of blacks, it was thought that because their skin could never become white, they would never be cured of evil.

McMillan, Timothy J. “Black Magic: Witchcraft, Race, and Resistance in Colonial New England.” Journal of Black Studies 25.1 (1994): 99-117. JSTOR. Web. 17 Feb. 2016.

Bridget Bishop and other accused were said to try to get their victims to sign a book, as if it were a rite to become "evil." Not signing this supposed satanic book meant that the victim was still "good" in some sense. Unfortunately, blacks were unable to maintain the perception of being good, as they were associated with the devil himself and came from what was thought to be demon infested lands. Whites were therefore more like sorcerers while blacks were "inherently evil."

McMillan, Timothy J. “Black Magic: Witchcraft, Race, and Resistance in Colonial New England.” Journal of Black Studies 25.1 (1994): 99-117. JSTOR. Web. 17 Feb. 2016.

Cotton uses the bible in a different way here. He explains how God will tempt anyone and everyone. And I believe that he points this out because during this time people thought that if they followed their preacher, practiced good religion, and fully believed in God they wouldn’t be affected by the devil at all. I think that by Cotton expressing this it had a big impression on the community.

The Puritans place great weight on books, especially the bible and religious texts. They believed that their religious writings were essentially a "transmission of sacred information" and thus viewed books as being imbued with an otherworldly or godly power. Because of this, many were fearful of the "devil's book" or "black book." Many testimonies in the Salem Witch trials reveal individuals being forced to sign the devil's book and do the devil's bidding. The idea that this book had evil power, instead of healing or sacred power like that of the bible or other religious texts, has some relation to fetishism and the cultural practices in Africa where those natives would assign objects like bones and shells to have an influence on whoever had the object.

Trigg, Christopher. "The Devil's book at Salem." Early American Literature 49.1 (2014): 37-65. Academic OneFile. Web. 8 Mar. 2016.

Africans were suspected of witchcraft because Africa itself was thought to house numerous demons and devils. Europeans were especially frightened of Africans because they, like the devil, were black. Many testimonies in the Salem Witch Trials said that the devil showed himself as "the black man."

Additionally, witches were thought to be "agents of the Devil" and had "tawny" skin. It was easy for colonists to make the correlation between witches and Indians, who also had tawny skin.

Griffin, Dustin. “Cotton Mather and the Emerson Family.” Massachusetts Historical Review 16 (2014): 1-48. JSTOR. Web. 17 Feb. 2016.

McMillan, Timothy J. “Black Magic: Witchcraft, Race, and Resistance in Colonial New England.” Journal of Black Studies 25.1 (1994): 99-117. JSTOR. Web. 17 Feb. 2016.

Once again here he is showing the community that both the devil and god will plague the world.

Healing practices and other cultural practices of the natives seemed very much like witchcraft to the Europeans, especially powwows. Colonists especially believed they were "summoning the devil" and many claimed that these natives were "enchanting" the land, conjuring up fog to shroud their ships and cause other things to obstruct their paths. To William Bradford, governor of Plymouth, powwows seemed like the natives were summoning demons when they gathered "in a horrid and devilish manner." This once again relates to the idea that America was the "devil's land."

Lovejoy, David S. “Satanizing the American Indian.” The New England Quarterly 67.4 (1994): 603–621. JSTOR. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.

Mather is pointing out that the New Englanders are currently living on what was previously the "Devil's Territories" and uses typology to compare their inhabitancy to Christianity being brought to the Ephesians. This idea that America and its natives were satanical has been present since the Spanish Conquest. This was an especially logical assumption by conquistadors and colonists alike because none of the natives practiced Christianity or heard of the Christian God before their contact with Europeans. The conversion of natives to Christianity was also stressed because of their supposed contact with the devil.

Lovejoy, David S. “Satanizing the American Indian.” The New England Quarterly 67.4 (1994): 603–621. JSTOR. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.

In this he is explaining that in the book of Mathew the deciples were appraoched by the devil and that they previously had encounters themselves.

In this he is explaining how Holy God would not do this and not allow this and if so why would a country or such a community follow such a prodigy.

I believe in this he is explaining how the devil thought that becasue this use to be the devils territory that they should follow him whereas they have choosen jesus.

Cunning language here by Mather. The colonists harbored the idea that they were equal in their land claims to that of the chosen people of scripture. This typology would seem very appealing to an official who doubts the security of its colony. Cotton is suggesting that these New England colonists shared the same destiny of ancient Israeli tribes in that they are destined by god to inherit coveted land. Prosperity on this land likens them to Jesus and his prophetic inheritance. This is propaganda writing which supports the embryonic notion of American exceptionalism.

The technical term for this nocturnal flight is called "transvection". This old belief of witches flying on broom sticks, shovels, or even animals such as the black ram gave rise to the stereotypical green hag of American Halloween fame. Satan was believed to have aided witches of certain rank on their way to the Sabbath. This was a motif of European art during the witch craze.

Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology.

Cotton was commissioned to relate the events of the Salem witch trials to the powers that be in England. Stoughton recruited Mather because of his literary abilities. You can get a sense of the doubt surrounding the court of Salem and the lords abroad regarding the stability of the New England colonies. Mather wrote The Wonders of the Invisible World to assuage the doubt and anxiety surrounding the Massachusetts colony and to appease Governor Phips.

Witch hunting was a science and these tenets are fashioned after a notorious tome from the late fifteenth century. The Malleus Maleficarum served as a field guide to hunt witches. Within its pages, the witch finder could find detailed instructions for identifying, torturing, and executing a woman who is accused of witchcraft of black magic.

Mary Queen of Scots introduced Scotland to witchcraft. In Scotland, you could face torture and execution for merely associating with an accused witch. Unique differences can be found here: the witches didn't need to confess in order to be executed. Other countries like England held the confession as an essential part of the purging process. The condemned also had to pay for their torture and execution, and what property they had left was confiscated by a noble lord.

See The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology by Russell Hope Robins

Mather suggests that the Massachusetts colony was founded in the an area previously influenced by Satan. This reference, however, could recall the witch hysteria of reformation Europe. More than 400,000 people were killed, primarily during the seventeenth century. Mater could be appealing to his audience's sense of history and European superstitions by transposing that paranoia onto New England.

Bradstreet uses this as a way to address the unequal treatment women in writing profession will have. Even if she proves herself as a good writer, she will never find success because people will think she stole her writing or was lucky. Women writers cannot be as good as men.

By being a writer, Bradstreet challenged gender norms of her time. She uses this as the opportunity to bring to light the criticisms of her chosen profession, many people arguing that she's better off with a sewing needle, rather than a pen.

The eldest Muse. She was the Muse of eloquence and epic poetry who bestowed her gift on kings and princes.

Source: http://www.theoi.com/Ouranios/MousaKalliope.html

This stanza is interesting to highlight upon. Bradstreet is known for her feminist prose. However, here we see how her views were somewhat less "controversial." By that, I mean she is not completely arguing that women and men are equal. Bradstreet acknowledges the fact that men can do better than women and that women should accept that. Though, she still hopes that one day women will get acknowledgement for what they have accomplished.

Here Bradstreet displays her jealousy she has of Bartas. While she admires him, she believes he was born with more skill than her and that she will never compare. I believe that she may use Bartas as a way to display most men her in society, the fact that they are always better "by nature." She is preparing readers for her poetry to come, being both modest and envious.

The Salic Law of Succession. This law forbid succession of the throne by those through only a woman, and women themselves. The arguments made that prevented women from taking the throne ultimately supported the Roman Law and priestly character of kingship. England was one of the countries that did not practice the Salic Law.

Source: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Salic-Law-of-Succession

Here, Bradstreet is entertaining the thought, "do women have worth or not?" She uses this to argue that women had worth while Queen Elizabeth was alive, because the power she had proved that any woman could prove her own governance. She questions whether women lost their worth once Queen Elizabeth died. Though, she believes, in time, women will gain it back because Elizabeth will right their wrongs from the grave.

During the Salem witch trials, accusations of female witches were often proceeded by acts of aggression such as this (Bever, 2). A possible reason for accusing women of witchcraft after their acts of aggression were due to their failure to adhere to the current idea femininity. Because Carrier was not weak or particularly amiable in this case, as a woman should be, she must be a witch.

As seen here, women in Salem were often accused of witchcraft in the context of physical effects. Women were more accused in cases such as these because they were involved in that "social sphere" (Bever, 9). Women were involved in the social sphere that included tending to the ill. In many cases the effects of witchcraft were supposedly illness seemingly out of nowhere. So when someone fell ill suddenly, people believed witchcraft was the cause. Based on the logic that women were medically knowledgeable, they concluded the witch was a nearby woman, particularly one they may have had a recent conflict with. Furthermore, as women were seen as more likely to be indirectly aggressive (6) they were also seen as more likely to perform witchcraft. When people would fall ill from an unknown source, it was rational for them to look to women as the witch responsible because women were the ones who acted aggressively through indirect means such as witchcraft.

Bever, Edward. "Witchcraft, female aggression, and power in the early modern community." Journal of Social History 35.4 (2002): 955+. Academic OneFile. Web.

During the Salem witch trials, it was more often women who accused other women of being witches. One possible reason a known female witch would have accused another woman would be to take avoid accusations on herself (Blécourt, 295). As stated before, women often pleaded guilty as a way to prove they were repenting their sins (even sins they most likely did not commit). Accusing other women could have also been a tactic to avoid their own persecution. Furthermore, not only men, but women believed they could be more easily coerced by the devil, so even women accused other women of being witches in another effort to avoid accusations on themselves. Seeing so many other women being accused they would call out other women to show they themselves were not witches.

In Puritan New England, people believed women's souls were less protected from the devil because of their weak physical shapes ( Reis, 5) and therefore more likely to succumb to the devil's advances (Reed, 223). In this case women were accused of witchcraft more often because they could easily be drawn in by the devil to sing this book. They were thought to be more easily tricked or seduced into signing over their soul's to the devil and therefore more likely to be seen as witches.

In Puritan culture a family was seen as its own covenant. In these families it was the woman's task to teach the children (Reis, xiii). Therefore when children confessed to having learned or were accused of performing witchcraft the puritans assumed they must have learned from their mother. This was another reason women were more often accused of witchcraft. In this case Carrier's children admitted to having been turned to witches by their mother. However, many people during this time were forced to confess that they had performed witchcraft (Blécourt, 296) so it is not so far-fetched to assume Carrier's children were also forced to confess their mother had taught them witchcraft. Despite this, their "fake" confession helped lead to the conviction of their mother. Furthermore, Puritans believed children "absorbed" the sins of parents, being born already sinful (Krugler, 190). Because of this, if Carrier's children were to confess to the sin of witchcraft, the Puritans could also claim it was a sin they inherited from their mother and use it as proof of her own sins of witchcraft. This relative ideal also accounts for the few men that were accused of witchcraft. In many cases, the men that were accused were the husbands or had other familial ties to women already convicted (Reed, 216). This furthers the argument that gender was at the foundation of the witch trials in that men were only accused of witchcraft in relation to a female witch.

De Blécourt, Willem. "The Making of the Female Witch: Reflections on Witchcraft and Gender in the Early Modern Period." Gender & History 12.2 (2000): 287-309. Web.

In Puritan culture, all people, especially women were thought to be innately sinful, and everyone was expected to repent their sins. During the witch trials, when a woman was accused of witchcraft, she could choose to plead guilty or not guilty. Pleading guilty was an attempt by people to show the court they were repenting their sins, but in doing so was also admitting to performing witchcraft. However, pleading not guilty, as Carrier did, showed the court she did not repent her sins, even though she was trying to prove she had not committed any. This left women stuck between two choices after being accused, neither more desirable than the other. It was either plead guilty and be seen as a witch or plead not guilty and be accused of not repenting your sins of witchcraft. This could account for the high number of accused women who admitted to witchcraft. They chose the former option in the hope that the court would give them a chance to continue their repentance (Reis, 7). Martha's decision to plead not guilty could have, ironically, been the reason for her conviction and death.

Reis, Elizabeth. Damned Women: Sinners and Witches in Puritan New England. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.

In Puritan culture, the ability to interfere with fate by means of God was only possible by a man, namely the patriarch (Reed, 227). In this example, Carrier, supposedly has an argument with Preston in which he claims she threatened the loss of his cow and despite its good health, soon died. For this reason, Preston claims Carrier was able to cause this through supernatural means. Because she is a women and therefore could not have done this through God, she must have done it through the Devil, causing Preston to accuse her of witchcraft. His Puritan ideas about women were the reason for the accusation, causing Carrier to be seen as a witch because of her gender.

Reed, Isaac. "Why Salem made Sense: Culture, Gender, and the Puritan Persecution of Witchcraft." Cultural Sociology 1.2 (2007): 209-34. SAGE journals. Web.

In this part of Franklin's Autobiography, this statement is one of the many references to the treatment of females at this time. Benjamin Franklin was not only a liberal when it came to Deism and science, but also with the treatment of women. In Carol Hymowitz's A History of Women in America, she mentions that maintaining the household and having children are the biggest roles and priorities of colonial women. Women often had more than five children with sometimes more than one husband. With this constant labor, it was not good for the health of both the women and children. This is why, at the time, maternal and infant deaths were so common. Benjamin Franklin defies against the ideas of domestic women's roles, encouraging women to have just as much education as men.

Hymowitz, Carol, and Michaele Weissman. A History of Women in America. New York: Bantam, 1978. Google Scholar. Web. 22 Feb. 2016. http://bit.ly/1RgJkff

The term Praying Indians is a 17th-century term that refers to Native Americans of Quebec, Ontario, New England and New York, who converted to Christianity.

In the movie Black Robe, Laforgue set out to do exactly this.

Source: http://natickhistoricalsociety.org/eliotsindians/

Judaeo-Christian day of worship/rest has been a tradition that predates those religions. During the second century B.C.E. persecuting Romans confused the Hebrew deity, Yahweh Saboas, with the Hellenistic deity, Jupiter Sabazius.

Image:

http://www.liquisearch.com/sabazios/jewish_connection

These lines display hybridity because Rowlandson understood that tobacco was in high demand among the Natives. She sold whatever tobacco she received despite the fact that many colonists took to smoking tobacco as well. Because of her religious views, she chose to abstain from smoking tobacco, thinking that it could lead to sin.

Dorchester is a town in Boston that was founded in 1630 by Puritans who came from Dorchester, England.

Mary White Rowlandson was born in Somerset, England, which is only about 45 miles north of Dorchester, England.

Here's Dorchester, Mass. on the map.(https://familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/images/7/7b/Ma-suffolk.png

This passage, not included in the Norton Anthology of American Literature, shows a Native offering Rowlandson food and speaking with her. Although the Native points out that her "master," or Native friend, had been kind to her, he had murdered Englishmen. Rowlandson does not seem to be completely bothered by this, perhaps because of her devotion to God and her belief that she would not be harmed while in their captivity. (She may have also thought the Native was lying to her, as she had mentioned previously that Natives lied about how her husband had remarried.) If this [religion] is the case, it allows her writing to be even more emblematic of the Puritan sentiment.

This passage, in particular, is a good example of typology that we discussed in class. We learned that Puritan writers often said that their lived experiences were echoing Scripture. In Rowlandson's case, she writes, " I was never again satisfied." Rowlandson wrote that her dissatisfaction was "verified" in Micah 6.14: "Thou shalt eat and not be satisfied."

Squaw is the Native word for woman or wife and originated in the northeastern tribes of North America. The colonists adopted this word into the English language as the general term for a Native American woman but their use of it was often offensive or derogatory.

"Squaw." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/squaw

"Squaw." Encyclopedia of North American Indians, Houghton Mifflin. Ed. Frederick E. Hoxie. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. Credo Reference. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.

A reference from the disillusioned voice of Psalm 60:3. The reader can detect the bitter dejection of the author and the language mirrors a human struggle with colonial overtones. The phrase "wine of astonishment," was used by Trinidadian novelist, Earl Lovelace, compare the oppression of the Spiritual Baptists in Trinidad during 1917 British colonial rule.

https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Psalms-60-3/

There are several references to the book of Job in this document. The thirteenth, eighth, and third removes all hearken back to the blessed but tortured figure from The Old Testament. Here god wagers with the devil over Job's loyalty. Satan claims that Job will abandon his faith if he keeps suffering and loses his Earthly blessings. Rowlandson turns to scripture as she endures loss and hardship. She almost views her harrowing experience as a sort of spiritual test.

You can see this is probably because he is looking for food the day before and after all the travel is becoming more and more faint but continues to move along.

In this and other examples such as in this same passage above where he says "English cattle", I notice that they often put ownership to almost anything that isnt theirs. I believe they often do this to show what is "theirs" and not. not sure if this is true but I noticed the trend.

This would be modern day Northfeild Massachusetts as shown in the book King Phillips War. found at : https://books.google.com/books?id=QzYvdQaFwS0C&pg=PA73&lpg=PA73&dq=where+is+modern+day+Squakeag&source=bl&ots=9NuFeV1xTi&sig=dh3pnkuxWXnEkmG5aVSCGn3EENY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjSxuWD_-jKAhUDkh4KHSSnAZAQ6AEIKDAC#v=onepage&q=where%20is%20modern%20day%20Squakeag&f=false

This section clearly represents how he went back to reading the bible in order to reassure him. you can see how in the begining he was worried about what he read and then the further he read the better he felt.

In this case meaning a dome-shaped hut or tent made by fastening mats, skins, or bark over a framework of poles, used by some North American Indian peoples.

A word from Algonquian language meaning a native american child. The mistress had just gotten back from the burial of a child, which might explain the angry reaction here. For more information on Wampanoag burials, visit: This Site

These structures were built by first making a frame by cutting down and bending young tree sapplings. Bark from trees is then used as the covering. These structures can hold up against the worst weather, making them ideal for the conditions Rowlandson and the Indians are traveling through. If they made one this large, it must have taken a large number of people and great effort. This "great day of dancing" was important to the Indians.

Parched meal, as seen here are dried corn kernels that are baked. They are light weight, high energy, and last a long time so they would have been ideal for traveling, though as Rowlandson alludes to, not very tasty.

King Philip was another name for the Indian leader of King Philip's War, and Wampanoag chief, Metacom. He was given the name Philip before the war, in honor of the previously friendly relationship between Metacom's (Philip's) people and the Mayflower pilgrims. Some scholars say, in 1660, Metacom's brother appeared before the Plymouth court, requesting English names for himself and Metacom. Both were given names of Kings of Macedon, the ancient Greek kingdom. Metacom was named after Philip II.

In this case, the barbarous creatures are in reference to the Narrangansett, Wampanoag and Nashaway/Nipmuc Indian tribes.

These Indians raided the community of Lancaster, in which Rowlandson lived with her family, and made them accompany them for 11 weeks while raided other settlements. This First Remove is a description of the event.

Unfortunately, Rowlandson's 6-year-old daughter died from her wounds one week into their captivity.

Eventually, Rowlandson was ransomed for £20 by the women of Boston.

More information on the event can be found here: http://larkturnthehearts.blogspot.com/2011/04/indian-raid-in-1675-lancaster.html

Mary (White) Rowlandson initially moved here with her family in 1653. Here, she married Reverend Joseph Rowlandson in 1656. They had four children born between the years of 1658 and 1669.

It was also the site of their attack: see post in reference to the barbarous creatures for further information.

For further information on Mary Rowlandson's life:http://www.maryrowlandson.com/

Albion is the ancient name for England. According to legend, a giant who was a son of Poseidon created and lived on the island. The island carries a Utopian connotation and this was personified by Blake's "Albion Man," a figure of liberation free from the constraints of political and religious oppression. Elizabeth, in this poem echoes this mystical concept.

image: http://tweleve.org/maranatha/17561-william-blakes-vitruvian-man.html

http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/great-works/great-works-the-dance-of-albion-circa-1795-william-blake-1965101.html

Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene, a large allegorical poem which favored Protestantism and supposedly condemned Catholicism (e.g. the monster, Errour, vomiting books and papers which are thought to be Catholic doctrines and writings). Although Spenser was against Catholicism, he used a lot of Catholic traditions in his writing, which hints that the poem is supposed to be a parody of the church. The Faerie Queene is read in UPG's very own Renaissance in England course.

"Twice ten years old not fully told..." does this mean that she is barely twenty years old when she became very sick? These first two stanzas appear to be acceptance of her illness and death overall, since it is God who chooses who lives and dies.

Bay laurel leaves are used to crown winners in the Olympics. Known as a sign of victory and achievement, bay laurels are said to honor Apollo, the god of the Olympics.

According to Greek mythology, Apollo fell in love with Daphne. When she fled from him, Daphne asked the River god for help. She turned into a bay laurel tree when Apollo came by, and he cut off a branch and declared the tree was sacred.

Here is an image of Olympic champion, Michael Phelps with a bay laurel crown: (http://www.napamountain.com/Michael_Phelps_Bay_Laurel.jpg)

For more info on bay laurel leaves, check out this link: https://houseappeal.wordpress.com/2012/07/30/an-olympic-emblem-the-glory-of-the-laurel-leaf/

I have found in my studies of English literature that references to ships as more than sea vessels is quite common. Often, speaking of a ship is a way to easily convey emotion. "My Galley" by Sir Thomas Wyatt as another famous poem that used the sea to identify the powerful emotion of love. Although Anne's poem goes onto different topics, her beginning reminded me of that poem.

When I first read these lines, I thought that Anne was speaking of her husband. Only after reading the last line, it my ah-ha moment come to be. I find it fascinating that early colonists, whom came to America seeking refuge and religious freedom, did not capitalize the "H" in "Him," when speaking of God. It makes me wonder when that came to be, and if all other religious capitalize pronouns referring to their gods as well. That point set aside, I thought that this was a beautiful calling on God moment, as she describes her restlessness among all others who sleep soundly. Once again, her word play and style of writing is extremely alluring to me. I've yet to tire of reading her poems.

WOW. What an awesome way to begin a poem. Reading these lines, I immediately felt like I could connect to what Anne was trying to say. Obviously, in early America, there were innumerable trees and things to make the land look like a large forest at times. Reading this opening passage, I envisioned a deer, bolting and sniffing around. Using such an excitable animal such as a deer to convey her restlessness and anxiety really added a lot more depth to the poem for me. I felt compassion towards the young wife.

I really began to feel the anguish behind Anne’s poem at this point. While researching Anne for a timeline entry, I read that much of her poems revolved around her longing for her husband, as he and her father went on business trips as leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. I felt as if I could hear her voice as I read these simple lines with such large meaning. She wants her husband to know how much she misses him when he’s away, and I think that this poem is a beautiful way to tell him that.

An epitaph is a short statement about a person who has passed away. They are most commonly found on tombstones, and can be a poem or even a Bible verse.

Here is an image of the epitaph of Anne Bradley's tombstone. It reads "Mirror of Her Age, Glory of her Sex, whose Heaven-born-soul leaving its earthly Shrine, chose its native home, and was taken to its Rest, upon 16th Sept. 1672."

At first, I thought that the "Banks of Lacrim" was an actual place so I looked it up. I soon found out, however, that is not the case. The "secret place" is by the "bank" where "lacrim flood." Our text notes that Lacrima, in Latin, means "tear." So this "secret place" is a sad place where she cries .

Is there a reason why certain words,such as "Desire," "Distress," "Ruins" "Trunk" and "Candle," are capitalized? This doesn't happen in our text.

Perhaps it isn't the act of capitalization that is important, but the chosen words are what hold the significance. For example, words such as "Desire" and "Candle" can be connected to flames and fire.

Does anyone else think this is a possible connection?

The stoics sought to alleviate their connection to the material world by purging emotion. Bradstreet echoes this sentiment but seeks to maintain emotional openness, regardless of the vicissitudes of human existence.

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/#Phil

This xenophobic accolade refers to Elizabeth's success in thwarting a Catholic alliance of Spain and Ireland during the Desmond and Tyrone rebellions. The later conflict, also called The Nine Year War, saw reformation tensions boil over as Elizabeth was able to defend her protestant throne against the Catholic uprising in Ireland.

http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/elizabethan-war.htm

I think it is important to note how visual Bradstreet's writing is in this poem, especially this stanza. Through her writing, she explains the creation of Earth and humanity by God, but in this stanza, she describes how life on Earth differs. While nature goes through a continuous process of dying and coming back to life, seeming eternal through the seasons, humans only get one cycle. While nature gets to come back full of more life, humans wither until they are gone.

Bradstreet uses this to poem to describe the realization people have when they discover no one can have an eternal life on Earth. Everyone will eventually die when their time catches up to them. Even kings cannot escape the end of their time.

I thought this was an amazing poem by Bradstreet and was surprised it was not included in our anthology. I think it is a noteworthy piece because of how she notes that no one is eternal on Earth, and those who aren't recorded will be completely forgotten.

Bradstreet uses this poem to illustrate herself as a mother bird. She reflects on her eight children who she raised, but have now all flown away. I like this poem because it can withstand the test of time. Bradstreet longs for her children to fly back home, although they all have lives of their own. I believe many parents in present day can relate to Bradstreet. In the end, while she still misses her children, she writes, "I happy am, if well with you." Like most parents, she values her children's happiness, and seeing them happy is enough to live through the pain of missing them.

While this was annotated in our anthology, I decided to look up more definitions of the word. The results I found gave me a stronger view as to how Bradstreet viewed the Queen. The anthology defines the word as "a woman who possesses great stature, strength, and courage."

The definition that I believe enhances Bradstreet's view of Queen Elizabeth is, "a man-like, vigorous, and heroic woman; a female warrior; an amazon."

I believe this adds to how much Bradstreet respected the Queen.

http://www.oed.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/view/Entry/223704?redirectedFrom=virago#eid

While Bradstreet notes in her touching poem to her husband that she hopes they will live together even after death, her wishes did not fully remain true. Bradstreet died in 1672, while her husband went on to marry Ann Gardner-Bradstreet in 1676 until his death in 1697.

To find out more on their family tree, click here:http://www.geni.com/people/Gov-Simon-Bradstreet/6000000002927771337

Spirit is pleased with her very strong emotional companionship with God through faith. Flesh believes there are many material things on Earth that may give Spirit this same sort of fill and pleasure.

This poem refers to the quarrel of two sisters, "Spirit" and "Flesh." There are many religious references throughout this poem in particular; one of the many being Spirit's relationship with God. There is much quarrel on how close the Spirit is with God in comparison to Flesh.

I believe this poem particularly relates to Bradstreet in a significant way because of her religious experiences through life. Bradstreet most likely had periods of doubt and consideration while debating her religious beliefs. Her periods of religious thought can be heavily compared to the arguments between Spirit and Flesh in the poem.

Bradstreet also explains how she knows people will pick her pieces apart and judge them. She advises the book to try not to listen to critics and their rude words. This idea is finalized by the line, "...and take thy way where yet thou art not known."

As discussed in class, Bradstreet believes this book is a "child" of hers that is "ill-formed." This poem in particular discusses the flaws she sees in her poems. And, as she tries to fix errors before publishing, she believes these flaws become worse. This is shown in the line, "I wash'd thy face, but more defects I saw/ And rubbing off a spot, still made a flaw."

This poem explains how she believes these poems aren't that great, despite what her friends tell her when they get it published anyway.

As I discussed earlier above throughout this major poem, Queen Elizabeth I was very different from past monarchs. Instead of being a ruler of power and fierce behavior, Elizabeth was timid and knowledgable. This line, explains how cherished Queen Elizabeth was by her country. Despite her differences from past kings and queens, Elizabeth was very influential and productive during her rule.

This line of the poem discusses this difference between her and her past royal family. She accomplished much success during her rule, which was praised by many; however, after she past Bradstreet examines how the rule may change in comparison to Elizabeth I.

In this sense, Semiramis a queen of Assyria and a greek legend known in war. Despite being the queen of England, where many past rulers were quick to cause conflict, Queen Elizabeth I is known for avoiding war at all costs. This is why Bradstreet writes the line of her considering Semiramis as obscure. This line shows the view of Queen Elizabeth at the time. Not only was she peaceful and well-knowledgable, but she often kept track of foreign affairs. Queen Elizabeth I was sure to not jump into wars or conflicts without having deep considerations before hand.

Queen Elizabeth I source

This poem is more of a prayer to God for the safety of her husband compared to anything else. As I commented in one of my previous annotations, Bradstreet loves and cares for her husband immensely, so it makes sense that she could compose a prayer/poem to protect her husband during his travels. Since she had no idea when he'd get there and if he would survive the voyage, she is just sending out a general prayer to ease her uncertain thoughts during his time away. She's putting her complete trust and faith into God to keep her true love safe from danger out on his excursion since she plans to grow old with her husband, like she commented on in her previous poem.

In this poem, Bradstreet confesses and shares her love for her husband. She compares its value and strength to gold mines and heated with passion. She hopes that her love for him is sufficient or equal to the love that he shows towards her. This is because she really cares for him and wants him to be treated well. During the last two lines of the poem, she pledges her unconditional love for her husband, even after they die. Their love--like many others--will be so plentiful and faithful that many people will remember their love story for many years.

Here, Bradstreet is talking about the Nine Muses of Greek mythology. Each one of these muses represents a different form of artistic expression and the inspiration to create. In most cases, people seek out help from the Muses to help start their story. During this time period, Bradstreet was considered the Tenth Muse of the New World, and her first published collection of poems was entitled that. In a way, I see the connection that she purposely made to these innovative women influences. In a way, she's showing the public that women are capable of creating something that will help and benefit the overall population. She's implying that her work is as worthy as the other Muses. She has become more confident in her work compared to the beginning of the poem.

Bradstreet is reaching out to the Nine Muses of Greek mythology for some inspiration for this particular poem and the other poems in her collection. In the third line, she acknowledges that her views and thoughts will not amount to those of other great writers. The last line also shows her humility and somewhat inexperience in her writing, especially since she is trying to seek out the help of a higher entity.

This stanza of the poem is talking about how Bradstreet acknowledges the inequality that exists in her society, even though it's unfair. She reiterates that men have dominance and women cannot measure up to their expectations. Although she accepts the unbalance between genders, she's not happy about it. The last two lines of the stanza is a cry of help to seek appreciation for her work and the work that women contribute to society. Bradstreet is essentially saying: "I know that you don't like that I'm writing for the public, but at least give me credit for my original work."

Here, Bradstreet is talking about the male perception of female intelligence and abilities, or lack thereof. During this time period, females were only seen to take care of domestic responsibilities, the home and their family. Even though women have more potential (as we see in today's society), men could not move past these oppressive thoughts.

The second line in this stanza shows what men believe what women should be doing: sewing. Being a female and a writer during this time was not favored, and many men expressed their opinion. Lines 3-6 continue to show the inequality between genders. Bradstreet explains that even if she were to admit that she wrote the poems, the men in society would not give her credit for her artistic efforts. They will make up some sort of excuse that the written work was stolen or an accident. They couldn't fathom that a women could create a written piece that was worthy of publication.

Sassafras is an extinct species of deciduous trees in the family Lauraceae, native to eastern North America and eastern Asia. I originally thought that it was a type of weed, perhaps.

I found this passage interesting, because it details how the discoverers viewed this mysterious illness. It doesn't seem like they ever connected their harm in these areas..."no place wee coulde learne but where wee had bene..."

I find it interesting that in these texts, the "u" and "v" are interchangeable with each other. "Discouered" "Vnder" "Diude" "Vpon"

This is similar to the passage in "How the Orabi got their womenfolk back," when the Hopi wait until early in the morning to invade the town. Despite what Hariot is trying to portray here, about the natives inability to battle, they seem to know what they are doing.

This is an image of witch hazel. The bowes would have been made from its branches, which are rather feeble looking. This is obviously a good argument for not fearing the natives.

Here, Mantóac means Gods, but is interchangeable with Manitou. Manitou is the spiritual life force of the Algonquians. It exists everywhere, all the time, in animals, plants, events, etc.

Among the ~18 million Native Americans, about 80-90% of were wiped out by disease. The Natives were generally healthier than the colonists, eating healthier and larger diets, along with less disease in the first place. Diseases such as the bubonic plague, chicken pox, pneumonic plague, cholera, diphtheria, influenza, measles, scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, tuberculosis, and whooping cough were brought to America from the Europeans. This wipe of Native groups eventually led the Natives thinking that the colonists were sent from the heavens, but as punishment.

For more information on the diseases, click this link: http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/325

When I read this passage in the anthology, this line stuck out to me. While the Natives had their own culture, Hariot notes that after his sermons, the Natives would embrace the bible. I figured that this could perhaps be an example of the Natives at first thinking colonists to be people from the heavens. In the beginning, they did not realize the cultural reform being pushed upon them. This could have been a reason as to why the colonists were so confident in thinking they could adjust every Native's tradition.

As the natives began to develop a mortal fer of the Christian god, there arose a sinister desire to appeal to the friendship between the colonists and the natives. If the some native people suffered disease and death by angering the Christian god, then perhaps this god could be weaponized to smite the enemy tribes of the natives. A dark example of syncretism.

A case of hybridity, where a sick native appeals to the colonists' religion. The dying native asks for Christian prayer on his deathbed. He has here expressed doubt regarding the faith of his ancestors and yearns to experience the Christian god in his supposed afterlife.

This is a recurring motif among these accounts of the colonists. Compare this with a passage from A Discourse of Virginia: "They were well contented with trifles...He and his messengers were pleased with the like trifles." This exploitation was common in the trading between the colonists and native. Novelty kitsch was sold to the natives in exchange for items of better value and practicality.

In this, Hariot is explaining that while the Native's religion is far from his own and "untrue," it will be easier for them to conform already having belief in something, as opposed to having none at all. I think it is interesting to highlight, because many colonists belittle the Native beliefs, instead of understanding the difficulty as if their roles were reversed.

I was somewhat confused with this word, mainly because of its spelling. I found that it is simply tropic, relating to geography. This is party borrowed from French and Latin.

Full definition: Each of the two points on the celestial sphere at which the sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the celestial equator and begins to move back towards it again; a solstitial point; (also) the time of year when the sun is at such a point, a solstice. In extended use also: either of the two equinoctial points or equinoxes.

Despite the dismissive nature of many of the colonists, they recognize a shred belief in an afterlife. The European Christians scoffed at many of the the natives' religious beliefs, but here we find a stark similarity between the Christian afterlife of either paradise or fiery perdition and a native belief in "perpetual bliss" or the "great pit."

By reading this passage i got that maybe they hadnt had different types of meat aka animals because of the areas they live. at first i didnt undestand but i then thought it was because they lived in different areas and wouldnt experience these different animals and meats??

i felt like in this paragraph even though he started out by saying that the beans and peas were better than the english, they were still very similar. when he was comparing the two there were many similarities but the english were better.

Was not sure what the word " veine" means. Found it to mean vein. also found a meaning for the world in a french dictionay. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/translate/french-english/veine Web. Jan. 31.2016.

I wonder why this line over the "n" is used here, but not further down on the same word?

Is there any particular reason why the time (and place, in some cases) is italicized? The time of the year, week and day all have this effect.

Bradford wrote with this line over the letter m three times in this chapter (com̅ited, com̅one wealthe and sum̅er). Usually, the line is placed over a vowel to signify a long vowel sound. However, because it is placed over the "m," this leads me to believe that it was Bradford's intention to signify a double m. For example, com̅ited could be committed, and com̅one wealthe is our commonwealth. With that being said, Sumeria is only spelled with one m. Perhaps it was spelled differently in this version of English.

If this assumption is correct, why wasn't the bar used over letters with a double "t" or "l"?

According to Merriam-Webster, a thicket is a "group of bushes or small trees that grow close together."

Currently, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is planning the proposal of a Great Thicket National Wildlife Refuge. Six states in the Northeastern US are highlighted in the proposal (ME, NH, MA, RI, CT, NY) to help protect the wildlife who find their homes in the disappearing thicket shrublands. More info on the refuge can be found here: http://www.fws.gov/northeast/refuges/planning/lpp/greatthicketLPP.html

And because I am having difficulty posting the picture, here's a link to a photo that's provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service:

http://www.fws.gov/northeast/refuges/planning/images/Shrublands_southern_Maine_credit_Bill_Zinni_USFWS_954x340.jpg

This verbiage speaks volumes of the paranoia felt by these New England colonists. Upon first contact, they immediately develop a mistrust of the native. Yes the barricade would stave off the harsh November weather, but it will also serve as as a fortification against an attack they felt was imminent. They're intentions have to be questioned in terms of violence and their expectations of it.

A league is a form of European units of measurement ranging from 2.4 to 4.6 statute miles. In most cases when talking about land leagues, it is generally accepted as 3 statute miles. At sea, a league was three nautical miles.

1 nautical mile = 1.151 land miles

Even though the typical amount of a league is three (land or nautical) miles, it cannot be properly determined in this passage because of the time period.

Grampus was a common name used to generalize orcas, various dolphins, or other toothed whales during this time period. Nowadays, it is a genus that includes Risso's dolphin as its only species. This gives the settlers an idea what how the Indians survived in this foreign world.

This is an example on one today:

In the Bible, the Valley (or Brook) of Eshcol was a place that was famous for its grapes. According to my Youthwalk Devotional Bible: New International Version, in Numbers 13:23-24 it says, "When they reached the Valley of Eshcol, they cut off a branch bearing a single cluster of grapes. Two of them carried if on a pole between them, along with some pomegranates and figs (23). That place was called the Valley of Eshcol because of the cluster of grapes the Israelites cut off there (24)."

William Bradford is using this phrase as a comparison between the New England people in this foreign land and those in the Valley of Eshcol to show their need and appreciation for food grown in that area-specifically cor in this passage.

This piece was written between 1550-1607, which means that William Bradford spoke Early Modern English. Typically ye is used as an informal second-person pronoun or plural personal pronoun. I doubled checked by using the Oxford English Dictionary and it confirmed it, too. That being said, Bradford is using the word ye as the article the in this text numerous times. I'm confused by this because at what point did the usage of this word change in written and spoken language?

a peak; the name of the peak at Mount Nebo (where Moses saw the Promise Land)

there are often silent "e's" at the end of certain words. As another example, the word "rune."

another name for a very large ship

resin in between the seams of ship floor boards to prevent leaking

What is this referring to? Which parts of a ship are these?

i feel like when he said these lines he was saying that now that John Smith is there they have the altimate leader.

antipode: the parts of the earth diametrically opposite —usually used in plural —often used of Australia and New Zealand as contrasted to the western hemisphere

Smith most likely believed he was at the opposite side of the world from England.

"Antipode." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2016. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/antipode

Smith wrote this document primarily for the English public. This comment about the Spanish would have been easily recognizable and understood by the English reading this. This reference was not only a reminder that the Spanish had tried to colonize the New World; it was also a reminder of their thirst for gold and the violent ways they went about obtaining it. An aversion of the Spanish seems to be found in much of the English colonists' writing because of their rivalry in converting Natives to their respective religions and obtaining profitable goods. Smith is not an exception.

Appelbaum, Robert, and John Wood Sweet. Envisioning an English Empire: Jamestown and the Making of the North Atlantic World. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 2005. Print.

Smith's interactions with the Natives here show that he was aware they would be amazed at the appearance of a compass. It is evident the Natives had never seen anything like it since they seem very intrigued at the needle's movement. Smith used this as a way to escape execution, playing on the naivety the Natives had for European objects and instruments.The image below depicts a diptych dial compass, which is what Smith's compass might have looked like.

http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&assetid=386621001&objectid=55146

Aqua vitae is defined as a strong alcoholic liquor, such as brandy. It literally means "water of life" and has been used since the 15th century.

"Aqua Vitae." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2016. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aqua+vitae

By "my allegiance," Wingfield might be referring to his loyalty to the Virginia colony and to England..