By buying the tea, even though it was cheaper, colonists would be paying the duty and thereby implicitly acknowledging Parliament’s right to tax them.

. A new sense of shared grievances began to join the colonists in a shared American political identity.

bloodthirsty British soldiers with grins on their faces firing into a peaceful crowd.

When a small number of soldiers came to the sentry’s aid, the crowd grew increasingly hostile until the soldiers fired.

colonists, once again, resisted.

In New York City, the inhabitants raised a huge lead statue of King George III in honor of the Stamp Act’s repeal.

However, the colonists rejected the notion of virtual representation, with one pamphleteer calling it a “monstrous idea

This led, in part, to broader, more popular resistance.

Stamp Act

The King forbade settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains in an attempt to limit costly wars with Native Americans.

Britain now controlled the North American continent east of the Mississippi River, including French Canada.

Both Locke and Whitefield had empowered individuals to question authority and to take their lives into their own hands.

Education would produce rational human beings capable of thinking for themselves and questioning authority rather than tacitly accepting tradition.

Perhaps no single philosopher had a greater impact on colonial thinking than John Locke

Colonial political culture in the colonies also developed differently than that of the mother country

Samuel Adams, in the Boston Gazette, described the colonies as each being a “separate body politic” from Britain.

Constant war was politically consuming and economically expensive.

But the Revolution was as paradoxical as it was unpredictable

Throughout the eighteenth century, colonists had developed significant emotional ties with both the British monarchy and the British constitution

I am not of opinion that in giving Land to the English, we deprive ourselves of the use of it, on the Contrary, I think we shall share it with them,

Neither will the Generous Inflict a Punishment without a Crime.

eternal marks traced

No group—European or Indian—held sovereign power, and diplomatic, military, trading, and social exchanges continued for much of the eighteenth century.

Native Americans living in interior regions maintained greater control over their lands and culture

the lower People,

Loudon complained about the colonists in letters to the Duke of Cumberland:

Oh that I would be a Dog or a toad or any Creature but Man

and put me into a trembling fear before he began to preach;

I saw no man at work in his field, but all seemed to be gone.

4000 of people

every horse seemed to go with all his might to carry his rider to hear news from heaven for the saving of Souls;

I dropt my tool and I had in my hand an ran home to my wife telling her to make ready quickly to go and hear Mr. Whitefield preach at Middletown

and great numbers were converted to Christ;

It is true governments cannot be supported without great charge, and it is fit every one who enjoys his share of the protection should pay out of his estate his proportion for the maintenance of it

men unite into societies that they may have the united strength of the whole society to secure and defend their properties,

The rules that they make for, other men's actions must, as well as their own and other men's actions, be conformable to the law of Nature — i.e., to the will of God, of which that is a declaration, and the fundamental law of Nature being the preservation of mankind, no human sanction can be good or valid against it.

it being ridiculous to imagine one can be tied ultimately to obey any power in the society which is not the supreme.

This legislative is not only the supreme power of the commonwealth, but sacred and unalterable in the hands where the community have once placed it

if anybody dislike, I consent with him to change it for a better.

hereditary monarchy

whoever has the legislative or supreme power of any commonwealth, is bound to govern by established standing laws

of doing whatsoever he thought fit for the preservation of himself

Secondly, in the state of Nature there wants a known and indifferent judge, with authority to determine all differences according to the established law.

he be absolute lord of his own person and possessions

'Many of the most mutinous leapt overboard and drown'd themselves in the ocean with such resolution, shewing no manner of concern for life.'

seven hundred

where he was freed.

The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable.

The stench of the hold

he feared that he was about to be eaten by the European crew

transatlantic slave trade

Quakers were the first group to turn against slavery

Carolina slaves had less direct oversight than those in the Chesapeake

to avoid the diseases of the rice fields

Slave owners could not be convicted of murder for killing a slave;

This distribution of property, which kept wealth and property consolidated, guaranteed that the great planters would dominate social and economic life in the Chesapeake.

Slavery was a transatlantic institution

attacked and killed a French diplomat

anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant sentiment, slowed European immigration

Jewish immigrants found work in retail, commerce, and artisanal occupations such as tailoring.

hain migration allowed Irish men to send portions of their wages home, which would then be used to either support their families in Ireland or to purchase tickets for relatives to come to the United States

Middle-class owners and managers justified their economic privilege as the natural product of superior character traits, including their wide decision-making and hard work.

Americans embarked upon their industrial revolution

enable the ‘rich’ to ‘take care of themselves’ while the poor must work or starve.

They no longer shared the bonds of their trade but were subsumed under a new class-based relationships

twenty-one-year-old British immigrant Samuel Slater to build a yarn-spinning machine and then a carding machine

cotton

steamboats filled the waters of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers

improved road networks

Her trip was less than 500 miles but took six full weeks to complete

exorbitant internal transportation costs hindered substantial economic development

America’s exports rose in value from $20.2 million in 1790 to $108.3 million by 1807

The revolution reverberated across the country. More and more farmers grew crops for profit, not self-sufficiency.

Irish, German, and Jewish immigrants sought new lives and economic opportunities. By the Civil War,

United States ended its legal participation in the global slave trade in 1808

American farmers increasingly exported foodstuffs to Europe as the French Revolutionary Wars devastated the continent between 1793 and 1815

larger exchange network connected by improved transportations

You need not be afraid to give us our rights for fear we will take too much—for we won’t take more than our pint’ll hold.

Since no written transcript of the speech has appeared,

Women’s Rights Convention

That man over there says women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And arn’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed, and planted , and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And arn’t I woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! And arn’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen them most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And aren’t I a woman?

He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education, all colleges being closed against her.

right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they were accustomed.

all men and women are created equal;

During the first day the meeting will be exclusively for women, who are earnestly invited to attend.

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among the people of the earth a position different from that which they have hitherto occupied, but one to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes that impel them to such a course.

Missionaries worked to translate the Bible into Iroquois and other languages

word of God

an empire of benevolence

“fallen women.”

impassioned forms of worship

Women, too, exhorted, in a striking break with common practice.

Middle-class women, in particular, were able to play a leading role in reform activity.

After religious disestablishment

They began to see that they would need to fight for women’s rights simply in order to be able to fight for the rights of slave

several female reformers worked tirelessly to increase women’s access to educatio

men gained legal control over their wives’ property

Women and men of all colors were encouraged to associate together in these spaces to combat what they termed “color phobia.”

Temperance reformers pledged not to touch the bottle

After religious disestablishment, citizens of the United States faced a dilemma: how to cultivate a moral and virtuous public without aid from state-sponsored religion. Most Americans agreed that a good and moral citizenry was essential for the national project to succeed, but many shared the perception that society’s moral foundation was weakening.

Transcendentalists

As the borders of the United States expanded during the nineteenth century and as new demographic changes altered urban landscapes, revivalism also offered worshippers a source of social and religious structure to help cope with change.

Communion,

policies of their owners

Some owners allowed their enslaved people to roam, in order to scavenge for food, in times of drought or crop failures

Africans survived on the slave ships on diets which the European captain thought were appropriate for their survival

they created new instruments

American-born slaves grew up speaking these languages naturally

Europeans arrived, and as their trading presence became more concentrated

A range of artifacts manufactured by enslaved craftsmen and women with local materials helped to transmit folklore through such objects as canoes, trays, combs, stools and ceramics shaped for daily use.

Some enslaved people converted to Christianity while others rejected it as the religion of their oppressors.

Eventually, forms of pidgin, differing from colony to colony, emerged into fully-fledged creole languages of their own

Africans forced onto slave ships were drawn from a large range of societies and cultures.

descendants of African slaves came to speak the local variants of English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch.

Some of those crafts and skills, and the objects themselves, survive to this day.

Folklore often conveyed religious worldviews and beliefs

Music

Africans brought to the Americas the greatly varied cultures of their homelands, including folklore, language, music, and foodways

For the enslaved, understanding the language of European and American slave traders and plantation owners was necessary to understand the new world of Atlantic slavery that legally determined so many aspects of their lives from life to death.

Africans brought to the Americas the greatly varied cultures of their homelands, including folklore, language, music, and foodways.

to the astonishment of the Negroes on the plantation, who thought I had made my escape to some other part of the country, as my father had done before

employed I was reflecting on many things that would present themselves to my imagination;

hen the white people would not let us be baptized by the church, we went down into the water together, in the sight of many who reviled us, and were baptized by the Spirit.

The white men pursued and fired on us several times.

I now withdrew myself as much as my situation would permit from the intercourse of my fellow-servants,

"What do you mean by the Spirit?

devoting my time to fasting and prayer.

they would often carry me with them when they were going on any roguery, to plan for them

I was telling them something, which my mother, overhearing, said it had happened before I was born.

The hands are required to be in the cotton field as soon as it is light in the morning,

no tea, coffee, sugar, and with the exception of a very scanty sprinkling now and then, no salt...

They do not dare to stop even at dinner time, nor return to the quarters, however late it be, until the order to halt is given by the driver

"THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS REST"

So, whether he has two little or too much, his approach to the gin- house is always with fear and trembling.

The hands are required to be in the cotton field as soon as it is light in the morning

Eli Whitney

the American South quickly became the world’s leading cotton producer

a sense unity that remained unsaid, but was acted out daily.

The decades before the Civil War in the South, then, were not times of slow, simple tradition

the average cost of an enslaved male laborer likewise rose

skin color of those forced to work its fields

The two moved hand-in-hand

Some even sent their own agents to purchase cheap land at auction for the express purpose of selling it, sometimes the very next day, at double and triple the original value—a process known as “speculation.”

Few knew that the seven bales sitting in Liverpool that winter of 1785 would change the world.

millions of dollars changed hands.

A single bad crop could cost even most wealthy, landed planter his or her entire life

slavery became a way of life,

sucking up nutrients at a rate with which the soil could not compete

sending 6.5 million pounds of the luxurious long-staple blend to markets in Charleston, Liverpool, London, and New York.

The change was astonishing.

The explosion of available land in the fertile cotton belt brought new life to the South. By the end of the 1830s, “Petit Gulf” cotton had been perfected, distributed, and planted throughout the region.

a machine developed by Eli Whitney in 1794 for deseeding cotton—more easily than any other strain. It also grew tightly, producing more usable cotton than anyone had imagined to that point.

The discovery of Gossypium barbadense—often called “Petit Gulf” cotton—near Rodney, Mississippi, in 1820 changed the American and global cotton markets forever.

He is unwilling to submit to the laws of the States and mingle with their population.

have melted away to make room for the whites. The waves of population and civilization are rolling to the westward, and we now propose to acquire the countries occupied by the red men of the South and West by a fair exchange, and, at the expense of the United States, to send them to land where their existence may be prolonged and perhaps made perpetual. Doubtless it will be painful to leave the graves of their fathers; but what do they more than our ancestors did or than our children are now doing? To better their condition in an unknown land our forefathers left all that was dea

enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way

What good man would prefer a country covered with forests

hailed with gratitude and joy.

cruel in this Government

have melted away to make room for the whites.

enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. I

he Indian is made discontented in his ancient home to purchase his lands, to give him a new and extensive territory, to pay the expense of his removal, and support him a year in his new abode?

We think of the ratification controversy as pitting Anti-Federalists against Federalists. Who were the Anti-Federalists? The traditional distinctions are largely unconvincing. Some scholars have emphasized wealth and poverty -- that is, rich people tended to support the Constitution and poor or working-class people tended to oppose it. That distinction breaks down, however, for there were many rich opponents of the Constitution (such as George Mason of Virginia) and the proposed document had many working-class supporters in cities such as Philadelphia and New York

Napoleón decided to reconquer the island and restore slavery

Haiti, known as Saint-Domingue before the revolution, was the richest colony in the Americas in 1789.

Who were the Anti-Federalists?

While not easy, this goal was far easier to achieve than the unanimous consent of the states required by Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation.

exercise that constituent power.

national political community; it helped to focus the American people's attention on the political component of their national identity.

all except Rhode Island,

Who were the Anti-Federalists?

Thus, when the Federal Convention dissolved on 17 September 1787, it sent the proposed Constitution and its accompanying resolutions to the Confederation Congress.

The delegates took even longer to decide on the form of the national executive branc

As creditors threatened to foreclose on their property

The potter hath power over his clay

Anti-Federalists” argued that without such a guarantee of specific rights, American citizens risked losing their personal liberty to the powerful federal government. The pro-ratification “Federalists,” on the other hand, argued that including a bill of rights was not only redundant but dangerous; it could limit future citizens from adding new rights.

critics of the Constitution organized to persuade voters in the different states to oppose it.

Shays’ Rebellion, generated intense national debate

Shaysites as rebels who wanted to rule the government through mob violence

Thomas Jefferson, thought “a little rebellion now and then” helped keep the country free

That November, Washington called his fellow citizens to celebrate with a day of thanksgiving, particularly for “the peaceable and rational manner”

  "As to your extraordinary code of laws, I cannot but laugh.

The right of women to vote was not recognized by the United States until 1920, more than 144 years after the Declaration of Independence.

very liable to be broken;

retaining an absolute power over wives.

I cannot but laugh.

attention is not paid to the ladies,

new code

Before the evening was over, much of Hutchinson’s home and belongings had been destroyed.16

Dunmore began to convince some slave owners that a new independent nation might offer a surer protection for slaver

Slaves could now choose to run and risk their lives for possible freedom with the British army, or hope that the United States would live up to its ideals of liberty. 

Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation declaring martial law and offering freedom to “all indentured servants, Negros, and others” if they would leave their masters and join the British.

“may be publicly known,

Some women also took to the streets as part of more unruly mob actions, participating in grain riots, raids on the offices of royal officials, and demonstrations against the impressment of men into naval service. The agitation of so many helped elicit responses from both Britain and the colonial elites.

The colonial economy improved as the postwar recession receded

Declaratory Act, was left, in part, to save face and assert that Parliament still retained the right to tax the colonies.

The soldiers were tried in Boston and won acquittal, thanks, in part, to their defense attorney, John Adams.

Non-importation, and especially, non-consumption agreements changed colonists’ cultural relationship with the mother country. Committees of Inspection that monitored merchants and residents to make sure that no one broke the agreements.