renewable energy has almost certainly passed a positive tipping point

theBaldwin Effect suggests that learned behaviors that are adopted by a group(not simply an individual) can affect evolution’s trajectory, since those wholearn to adapt to changes in their environment live to pass on their genes.37

I would say the epigenetic inheritance that has to occur there and how it occurs must be contributing a very large fraction indeed to the differentiation process

what percentage of the information that is used by an organism let's say embryogenesis onwards is genetic versus all other sources put together what what what would you guess as a as a breakdown

the only way you can visualize the vaces because they're too tiny to be visualized by standard microscopy labeling with florescent dyes is about the only way we can um easily identify what molecules have been passed down from the vesicles to The Germ cells but that's very restrictive you see because there will be millions of different molecules in a single visle to be faced with only being able to label three or four of those otherwise we can't make out the the differences is it's very tedious

: t(27) = 2.66, p<0.05)

t(27) = 5.31, p<0.01)

t(44) = 3.10, p<0.05;

vs. t(72) = 3.07, p<0.05)

t(27) = 3.12, p<0.05)

t(55) = 2.02, p<0.05)

Corresponding author

References

Irino & Tada 2009)

Lee and Sherman, 2011)

Sherman and Guillery, 1998)

Groenewegen and Berendse, 1994;

Golding et al., 2002)

Popescu et al., 2007)

Pakhotin and Bracci, 2007)

Pawlak and Kerr, 2008)

Surmeier et al., 2007;

Calabresi et al., 2007;

Mahon et al., 2004;

Kreitzer and Malenka, 2007;

Kreitzer and Malenka, 2008)

Losonczy et al., 2008)

Plotkin et al., 2011)

Nanda et al., 2009)

Berndt et al., 2011)

Gunaydin et al., 2010)

Smeal et al., 2007)

Ding et al., 2010)

Kitai et al., 1976;

Ellender et al., 2011)

Groenewegen, 1988)

Herkenham, 1979;

Krettek and Price, 1977;

Boyden et al., 2005)

Smeal et al., 2008)

Ding et al., 2008;

Moss and Bolam, 2008;

Raju et al., 2006;

Fujiyama et al., 2006;

Lacey et al., 2005;

Sidibe and Smith, 1999)

Rudkin and Sadikot, 1999;

Lapper and Bolam, 1992;

Lacey et al., 2007)

Sadikot et al., 1992;

Xu et al., 1991;

Smith et al., 2009)

Castle et al., 2005;

Berendse and Groenewegen, 1990;

Macchi et al., 1984)

Doig et al., 2010)

Smith et al., 2004;

Buchwald et al., 1973;

Yin and Knowlton, 2006)

Grillner et al., 2005;

Graybiel et al., 1994;

Irino, T; Tada, R (2009): Chemical and mineral compositions of sediments from ODP Site 127‐797. Geological Institute, University of Tokyo. http://dx.doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.726855

Yin HH, Knowlton BJ (2006) The role of the basal ganglia in habit formation. Nat Rev Neurosci 7:464-476.

Xu ZC, Wilson CJ, Emson PC (1991) Restoration of thalamostriatal projections in rat neostriatal grafts: an electron microscopic analysis. J Comp Neurol 303:22-34.

Surmeier DJ, Ding J, Day M, Wang Z, Shen W (2007) D1 and D2 dopamine-receptor modulation of striatal glutamatergic signaling in striatal medium spiny neurons. Trends Neurosci 30:228-235.

Smith Y, Raju D, Nanda B, Pare JF, Galvan A, Wichmann T (2009) The thalamostriatal systems: anatomical and functional organization in normal and parkinsonian states. Brain Res Bull 78:60-68.

Smith Y, Raju DV, Pare JF, Sidibe M (2004) The thalamostriatal system: a highly specific network of the basal ganglia circuitry. Trends Neurosci 27:520-527.

Smeal RM, Gaspar RC, Keefe KA, Wilcox KS (2007) A rat brain slice preparation for characterizing both thalamostriatal and corticostriatal afferents. J Neurosci Methods 159:224-235.

Smeal RM, Keefe KA, Wilcox KS (2008) Differences in excitatory transmission between thalamic and cortical afferents to single spiny efferent neurons of rat dorsal striatum. Eur J Neurosci 28:2041-2052.

Sidibe M, Smith Y (1999) Thalamic inputs to striatal interneurons in monkeys: synaptic organization and co-localization of calcium binding proteins. Neuroscience 89:1189-1208.

Sherman SM, Guillery RW (1998) On the actions that one nerve cell can have on another: distinguishing "drivers" from "modulators". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:7121-7126.

Sadikot AF, Parent A, Smith Y, Bolam JP (1992) Efferent connections of the centromedian and parafascicular thalamic nuclei in the squirrel monkey: a light and electron microscopic study of the thalamostriatal projection in relation to striatal heterogeneity. J Comp Neurol 320:228-242.

Rudkin TM, Sadikot AF (1999) Thalamic input to parvalbumin-immunoreactive GABAergic interneurons: organization in normal striatum and effect of neonatal decortication. Neuroscience 88:1165-1175.

Raju DV, Shah DJ, Wright TM, Hall RA, Smith Y (2006) Differential synaptology of vGluT2-containing thalamostriatal afferents between the patch and matrix compartments in rats. J Comp Neurol 499:231-243.

Popescu AT, Saghyan AA, Pare D (2007) NMDA-dependent facilitation of corticostriatal plasticity by the amygdala. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:341-346.

Plotkin JL, Day M, Surmeier DJ (2011) Synaptically driven state transitions in distal dendrites of striatal spiny neurons. Nat Neurosci 14:881-888.

Pawlak V, Kerr JN (2008) Dopamine receptor activation is required for corticostriatal spike-timing-dependent plasticity. J Neurosci 28:2435-2446.

Pakhotin P, Bracci E (2007) Cholinergic interneurons control the excitatory input to the striatum. J Neurosci 27:391-400.

Nanda B, Galvan A, Smith Y, Wichmann T (2009) Effects of stimulation of the centromedian nucleus of the thalamus on the activity of striatal cells in awake rhesus monkeys. Eur J Neurosci 29:588-598.

Moss J, Bolam JP (2008) A dopaminergic axon lattice in the striatum and its relationship with cortical and thalamic terminals. J Neurosci 28:11221-11230.

Mahon S, Deniau JM, Charpier S (2004) Corticostriatal plasticity: life after the depression. Trends Neurosci 27:460-467.

Macchi G, Bentivoglio M, Molinari M, Minciacchi D (1984) The thalamo-caudate versus thalamo-cortical projections as studied in the cat with fluorescent retrograde double labeling. Exp Brain Res 54:225-239.

Losonczy A, Makara JK, Magee JC (2008) Compartmentalized dendritic plasticity and input feature storage in neurons. Nature 452:436-441.

Lee CC, Sherman SM (2011) Drivers and modulators in the central auditory pathways. Front Neurosci 4:79.

Lapper SR, Bolam JP (1992) Input from the frontal cortex and the parafascicular nucleus to cholinergic interneurons in the dorsal striatum of the rat. Neuroscience 51:533-545.

Lacey CJ, Boyes J, Gerlach O, Chen L, Magill PJ, Bolam JP (2005) GABA(B) receptors at glutamatergic synapses in the rat striatum. Neuroscience 136:1083-1095.

Lacey CJ, Bolam JP, Magill PJ (2007) Novel and distinct operational principles of intralaminar thalamic neurons and their striatal projections. J Neurosci 27:4374-4384.

Krettek JE, Price JL (1977) The cortical projections of the mediodorsal nucleus and adjacent thalamic nuclei in the rat. J Comp Neurol 171:157-191.

Kreitzer AC, Malenka RC (2008) Striatal plasticity and basal ganglia circuit function. Neuron 60:543-554.

Kreitzer AC, Malenka RC (2007) Endocannabinoid-mediated rescue of striatal LTD and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease models. Nature 445:643-647.

Kitai ST, Kocsis JD, Preston RJ, Sugimori M (1976) Monosynaptic inputs to caudate neurons identified by intracellular injection of horseradish peroxidase. Brain Res 109:601-606.

Herkenham M (1979) The afferent and efferent connections of the ventromedial thalamic nucleus in the rat. J Comp Neurol 183:487-517.

Gunaydin LA, Yizhar O, Berndt A, Sohal VS, Deisseroth K, Hegemann P (2010) Ultrafast optogenetic control. Nat Neurosci 13:387-392.

Groenewegen HJ, Berendse HW (1994) The specificity of the 'nonspecific' midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei. Trends Neurosci 17:52-57.

Groenewegen HJ (1988) Organization of the afferent connections of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the rat, related to the mediodorsal-prefrontal topography. Neuroscience 24:379-431.

Grillner S, Hellgren J, Menard A, Saitoh K, Wikstrom MA (2005) Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs--roles for the striatum and pallidum. Trends Neurosci 28:364-370.

Graybiel AM, Aosaki T, Flaherty AW, Kimura M (1994) The basal ganglia and adaptive motor control. Science 265:1826-1831.

Golding NL, Staff NP, Spruston N (2002) Dendritic spikes as a mechanism for cooperative long-term potentiation. Nature 418:326-331.

Fujiyama F, Unzai T, Nakamura K, Nomura S, Kaneko T (2006) Difference in organization of corticostriatal and thalamostriatal synapses between patch and matrix compartments of rat neostriatum. Eur J Neurosci 24:2813-2824.

Ellender TJ, Huerta-Ocampo I, Deisseroth K, Capogna M, Bolam JP (2011) Differential modulation of excitatory and inhibitory striatal synaptic transmission by histamine. J Neurosci 31:15340-15351.

Doig NM, Moss J, Bolam JP (2010) Cortical and thalamic innervation of direct and indirect pathway medium-sized spiny neurons in mouse striatum. J Neurosci 30:14610-14618.

Ding JB, Guzman JN, Peterson JD, Goldberg JA, Surmeier DJ (2010) Thalamic gating of corticostriatal signaling by cholinergic interneurons. Neuron 67:294-307.

Ding J, Peterson JD, Surmeier DJ (2008) Corticostriatal and thalamostriatal synapses have distinctive properties. J Neurosci 28:6483-6492.

Castle M, Aymerich MS, Sanchez-Escobar C, Gonzalo N, Obeso JA, Lanciego JL (2005) Thalamic innervation of the direct and indirect basal ganglia pathways in the rat: Ipsi- and contralateral projections. J Comp Neurol 483:143-153.

Calabresi P, Picconi B, Tozzi A, Di Filippo M (2007) Dopamine-mediated regulation of corticostriatal synaptic plasticity. Trends Neurosci 30:211-219.

Buchwald NA, Price DD, Vernon L, Hull CD (1973) Caudate intracellular response to thalamic and cortical inputs. Exp Neurol 38:311-323.

Boyden ES, Zhang F, Bamberg E, Nagel G, Deisseroth K (2005) Millisecond-timescale, genetically targeted optical control of neural activity. Nat Neurosci 8:1263-1268.

Berndt A, Schoenenberger P, Mattis J, Tye KM, Deisseroth K, Hegemann P, Oertner TG (2011) High-efficiency channelrhodopsins for fast neuronal stimulation at low light levels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.

Berendse HW, Groenewegen HJ (1990) Organization of the thalamostriatal projections in the rat, with special emphasis on the ventral striatum. J Comp Neurol 299:187-228.

Acknowledgements and funding

Introduction

t(72) = 1.73, p<0.05;

: t(27) = 1.99, p<0.05;

: t(27) = 1.98, p<0.05)

Figure 5: Long term plasticity at Pf, but not CL, synapses

Figure 3: Dynamic properties of CL, Pf and cortical synapses on MSNs

Figure 2: The majority of MSNs receive both thalamic and cortical input

1: Localized transfection of thalamic neurons in the central lateral or parafascicular thalamic nucleus

Data Access

bstract

32%

30%

Abbreviated title

Figure 5A

Figure 3A

Figure 2B

Figure 1A,

Discussion

p=0.02)

Conflicts of Interests

Irino, T; Tada, R (2009): Chemical and mineral compositions of sediments from ODP Site 127‐797. Geological Institute, University of Tokyo. http://dx.doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.726855

References

Acknowledgements and funding