(3.6.4)

soft ionization technique

A mixture of metal ions in a solution can be separated by precipitation with anions such as Cl−Cl−\ce{Cl-}, Br−Br−\ce{Br-}, SO2−4SO42−\ce{SO4^2-}, CO2−3CO32−\ce{CO3^2-}, S2−S2−\ce{S^2-}, Cr2O2−4Cr2O42−\ce{Cr2O4^2-}, PO2−4PO42−\ce{PO4^2-}, OH−OH−\ce{OH-} etc.

Formation of the [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ complex is accompanied by a dramatic color change, as shown in Figure 4.8.14.8.1\PageIndex{1}. The solution changes from the light blue of [Cu(H2O)6]2+ to the blue-violet characteristic of the [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ ion.

The narrator is the person telling the story. Point of view: whose eyes the story is being told through. Who is the narrator or speaker in the story? Is the narrator the main character? Does the author speak through one of the characters? Is the story written in the first person “I” point of view? Is the story written in a detached third person “he/she/they” point of view? Is the story written in an “all-knowing” third person who can reveal what all the characters are thinking and doing at all times and in all places?

Characterization deals with how the characters are described. through dialogue? by the way they speak? physical appearance? thoughts and feelings? interaction – the way they act towards other characters? Are they static characters who do not change? Do they develop by the end of the story? What type of characters are they? What qualities stand out? Are they stereotypes? Are the characters believable?

Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place. What aspects make up the setting? Geography, weather, time of day, social conditions? What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or theme? Or is it just a backdrop against which the action takes place? Study the time period which is also part of the setting When was the story written? Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future? How does the time period affect the language, atmosphere, or social circumstances of the novel?

Before you dive straight into your analysis of symbolism, diction, imagery, or any other rhetorical device, you need to have a grasp of the basic elements of what you're reading. When we read critically or analytically, we might disregard character, plot, setting, and theme as surface elements of a text. Aside from noting what they are and how they drive a story, we sometimes don't pay much attention to these elements. However, characters and their interactions can reveal a great deal about the story's themes. Plot can act as a stand-in for real-world events just as setting can represent our world or an allegorical one. Theme is the heart of literature, exploring everything from love and war to childhood and aging.

With this in mind, you can begin your examination of literature with a “who, what, when, where, how?” approach. Ask yourself “Who are the characters?” “What is happening?” “When and where is it happening?” and “How does it happen?” The answers will give you character (who), plot (what and how), and setting (when and where). When you put these answers together, you can begin to figure out theme, and you will have a solid foundation on which to base your analysis. We will be exploring several of the following literary elements in the following pages so that we can have a common vocabulary to talk about fiction:

making litmus useless as an indicator of the equivalence point.

Co-dominance is another type of allelic relationship in which a heterozygous individual expresses the phenotype of both alleles simultaneously. An example of co-dominance is found within the ABO blood group of humans.

In incomplete dominance (also called semi-dominance), both alleles affect the trait additively, and the phenotype of the heterozygote shows a typically intermediate between the homozygotes, which is often referred to as blended phenotype.

As we will now see, there are two other types of Dominance — namely, incomplete dominance and co-dominance.

7.36×10−4 g146.1 g/mol

Ksp=[Ca2+]3[PO3−4]22.07×10−331.92×10−351.14×10−7 M=(3x)3(2x)2=108x5=x5=x(4.5.4)(4.5.5)(4.5.6)(4.5.7)(4.5.4)Ksp=[Ca2+]3[PO43−]2=(3x)3(2x)2(4.5.5)2.07×10−33=108x5(4.5.6)1.92×10−35=x5(4.5.7)1.14×10−7 M=x\begin{align}K_{\textrm{sp}}=[\mathrm{Ca^{2+}}]^3[\mathrm{PO_4^{3-}}]^2&=(3x)^3(2x)^2 \\2.07\times10^{-33}&=108x^5 \\1.92\times10^{-35}&=x^5 \\1.14\times10^{-7}\textrm{ M}&=x\end{align}

when small amounts of a strong acid or a strong base are added

the

salt

Determine x and equilibrium concentrations. A table of changes and concentrations follows:

pH=pKa+log[A−][HA]pH=pKa+log⁡[A−][HA]

−2(aq)⟶CH3

Muybridge

era.

Acid rain is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

Biopsychology is the study of biological mechanisms of behavior and mental processes.  It examines the role of the nervous system, particularly the brain, in explaining behavior and the mind. This section defines biopsychology, critically examines a common myth about the brain, and briefly surveys some of the primary areas of research interest in biopsychology.

A Scientific Model of the Universe:  Two Basic Assumptions The modern scientific view of the world assumes that there are at least two fundamental properties of the universe.  The first assumption common to most scientists is that the entire universe is material or physical, composed exclusively of matter (including so-called dark matter) and energy (including electromagnetic energies such as light, heat, ultraviolet, and various other radiant energies, as well as other physical energies and forces such as electrical, gravitational, nuclear, and so forth).  The entire universe is governed by physical laws.  This view of the universe is called materialism or physicalism--the view that everything that exists in the universe consists of matter, energy, and other physical forces and processes.  Most important to biopsychology is the application of this principle to psychology and psychological processes.  If everything in the universe is physical, then applied to psychology, including biopsychology, this means that the mind, our mental processes and subjective mental experiences, must also be entirely physical processes in an entirely material brain.  Using this fundamental assumption of the modern scientific view of the universe, this means that the mind is entirely material, dependent upon the physical activities of an entirely material organ, the brain.  On this view, the mind is what the brain does, and the brain and its processes are completely physical, material, just matter and energy in highly specific and organized form.  This does not mean that all matter is conscious, nor does it mean that the mind is just energy.  The key idea is that the matter and energy must be organized in a particular way.  That is, a mind, consciousness, can only emerge from matter, energy, and physical processes if they are organized in a very specific and complex form--that form that we know as a brain and its physical operations.  Where did brains come from and how did they acquire the specific organization of matter and energy needed to make a conscious mind within them?  The scientific answer is evolution. Although this is the view among most biological psychologists, there are a few who believe, like many students do, that the brain, along with the rest of life, was created by a divine being and that therefore the mind has divine origins.  Typically, this belief is accompanied by the assumption that the mind is not physical, but that it is akin to the soul and the soul is believed to be non-material.  Belief that the mind is non-material and therefore independent of the physical brain and its physical processes is known as mind-body dualism or mind-brain dualism, which literally means that the mind and the functioning of the brain (assumed to be entirely physical) are two (dual) separate processes, completely independent of one another.  The origin of dualism is often attributed to the 17th century French philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes. If this view were true, then we would expect that brain damage would have no effect on the mind.  However, brain damage does affect the mind and the specific location of the damage produces more or less specific, fairly predictable, effects on the mind, modifying the mind and behavior in various ways.  Examples of this are coma due to head injury; the effects of Parkinson's disease on movement after the disease damages areas of the brain known as the basal ganglia; changes in personality and emotion due to injury to the front of the brain, specifically the frontal lobes; memory loss in Alzheimer's Disease; and so on.  Though you don't have to accept the assumption of physicalism when studying the brain if your religious beliefs are contrary to the idea, nevertheless it is important that you be aware of the assumption of physicalism/materialism that most biological psychologists accept, at least as a working hypothesis, if not a philosophical position, as they do their brain research. The second major assumption among most scientists is determinism--the belief that all events in the universe have prior causes and that these causes are external to the human will.  This implies that humans do not have free will.  Instead human behavior is caused by events external to us such as our upbringing, our social and cultural environment, by our brain structure and functioning, and by our genes and our evolution as a species.  In some versions of this viewpoint, since we do not have control over many of the factors in our environment, our genes, and our evolution as a species, our brain function and thus our behavior is actually controlled by causes outside of our control.  On this view, free will is an illusion that arises from our awareness of our mental processes as we make choices based on our selection of various behavioral options that we see open to us, but what we often fail to realize is that those choices are determined by many factors beyond our awareness and control (Koenigshofer, 2010, 2016).  Free will vs. determinism is an issue that is far from being resolved and remains controversial even among scientists, including biological psychologists.  Investigation by biological psychologists of the brain processes involved in choice and decision-making is ongoing and may eventually shed light on this difficult issue.  Again, it is not necessary for you to be a determinist to study the brain, but it is important for you to be aware of the doctrine of determinism as you consider the implications of brain research as you progress through this textbook and your course in biological psychology.

A Scientific Model of the Universe:  Two Basic Assumptions The modern scientific view of the world assumes that there are at least two fundamental properties of the universe.  The first assumption common to most scientists is that the entire universe is material or physical, composed exclusively of matter (including so-called dark matter) and energy (including electromagnetic energies such as light, heat, ultraviolet, and various other radiant energies, as well as other physical energies and forces such as electrical, gravitational, nuclear, and so forth).  The entire universe is governed by physical laws.  This view of the universe is called materialism or physicalism--the view that everything that exists in the universe consists of matter, energy, and other physical forces and processes.  Most important to biopsychology is the application of this principle to psychology and psychological processes.  If everything in the universe is physical, then applied to psychology, including biopsychology, this means that the mind, our mental processes and subjective mental experiences, must also be entirely physical processes in an entirely material brain.  Using this fundamental assumption of the modern scientific view of the universe, this means that the mind is entirely material, dependent upon the physical activities of an entirely material organ, the brain.  On this view, the mind is what the brain does, and the brain and its processes are completely physical, material, just matter and energy in highly specific and organized form.  This does not mean that all matter is conscious, nor does it mean that the mind is just energy.  The key idea is that the matter and energy must be organized in a particular way.  That is, a mind, consciousness, can only emerge from matter, energy, and physical processes if they are organized in a very specific and complex form--that form that we know as a brain and its physical operations.  Where did brains come from and how did they acquire the specific organization of matter and energy needed to make a conscious mind within them?  The scientific answer is evolution. Although this is the view among most biological psychologists, there are a few who believe, like many students do, that the brain, along with the rest of life, was created by a divine being and that therefore the mind has divine origins.  Typically, this belief is accompanied by the assumption that the mind is not physical, but that it is akin to the soul and the soul is believed to be non-material.  Belief that the mind is non-material and therefore independent of the physical brain and its physical processes is known as mind-body dualism or mind-brain dualism, which literally means that the mind and the functioning of the brain (assumed to be entirely physical) are two (dual) separate processes, completely independent of one another.  The origin of dualism is often attributed to the 17th century French philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes. If this view were true, then we would expect that brain damage would have no effect on the mind.  However, brain damage does affect the mind and the specific location of the damage produces more or less specific, fairly predictable, effects on the mind, modifying the mind and behavior in various ways.  Examples of this are coma due to head injury; the effects of Parkinson's disease on movement after the disease damages areas of the brain known as the basal ganglia; changes in personality and emotion due to injury to the front of the brain, specifically the frontal lobes; memory loss in Alzheimer's Disease; and so on.  Though you don't have to accept the assumption of physicalism when studying the brain if your religious beliefs are contrary to the idea, nevertheless it is important that you be aware of the assumption of physicalism/materialism that most biological psychologists accept, at least as a working hypothesis, if not a philosophical position, as they do their brain research. The second major assumption among most scientists is determinism--the belief that all events in the universe have prior causes and that these causes are external to the human will.  This implies that humans do not have free will.  Instead human behavior is caused by events external to us such as our upbringing, our social and cultural environment, by our brain structure and functioning, and by our genes and our evolution as a species.  In some versions of this viewpoint, since we do not have control over many of the factors in our environment, our genes, and our evolution as a species, our brain function and thus our behavior is actually controlled by causes outside of our control.  On this view, free will is an illusion that arises from our awareness of our mental processes as we make choices based on our selection of various behavioral options that we see open to us, but what we often fail to realize is that those choices are determined by many factors beyond our awareness and control (Koenigshofer, 2010, 2016).  Free will vs. determinism is an issue that is far from being resolved and remains controversial even among scientists, including biological psychologists.  Investigation by biological psychologists of the brain processes involved in choice and decision-making is ongoing and may eventually shed light on this difficult issue.  Again, it is not necessary for you to be a determinist to study the brain, but it is important for you to be aware of the doctrine of determinism as you consider the implications of brain research as you progress through this textbook and your course in biological psychology.

The Brain The most important organ controlling our behavior and mental processes is the brain. Therefore, biopsychologists are especially interested in studying the brain, its neurochemical makeup, and how it produces behavior and mental processes (Wickens, 2021). Figure 1.1.11.1.1\PageIndex{1}:  Photo of the left side of a human brain.  Front is at the left.  The massive cerebral cortex hides many subcortical brain structures beneath.  Note the folds on the surface of the cerebral cortex.  This folding increases in mammal species with increasing complexity of the brain of the species and is thought to originate from the "cramming" of more cortical tissue into the skull over evolutionary time. (Image from Wikimedia Commons; File:Human brain NIH.png; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/F..._brain_NIH.png; image is from NIH and is in the public domain.).   Modern technology through neuroimaging techniques has given us the ability to look at living human brain structure and functioning in real time. Neuroimaging tools, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, are often used to observe which areas of the brain are active during particular tasks in order to help psychologists understand the link between brain and behavior. Figure 1.1.21.1.2\PageIndex{2}: Brain Imaging Techniques (Copyright; author via source) Different brain-imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into different aspects of how the human brain functions. Three types of scans include (left to right) PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center": modification of work by "Aceofhearts1968"/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”: modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head are often used to help psychologists understand the links between brain and behavior.  As will be discussed later in more detail, different tools provide different types of information. A functional MRI, for example, provides information regarding brain activity while an MRI provides only information about structure.   Figure 1.1.31.1.3\PageIndex{3}: MRI of Human Brain (public domain; via Wikimedia Commons)

Biopsychology - The Interaction of Biology and Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes in animals and humans. Modern psychology attempts to explain behavior and the mind from a wide range of perspectives. One branch of this discipline is biopsychology which is specifically interested in the biological causes of behavior and mental processes.  Biopsychology is also referred to as biological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, physiological psychology, neuropsychology, and psychobiology. The focus of biopsychology is on the application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals. It is a branch of psychology that concentrates on the role of biological factors, such as the central and peripheral nervous systems, neurotransmitters, hormones, genes, and evolution on behavior and mental processes. Biological psychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic variables in an attempt to relate them to psychological or behavioral variables. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), biopsychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behavior and mental activities. Key areas of focus within the field include sensation and perception; motivated behavior (such as hunger, thirst, and sex); control of movement; learning and memory; sleep and biological rhythms; and emotion. With advances in research methods, more complex topics such as language, reasoning, decision making, intelligence, and consciousness are now being studied intensely by biological psychologists.

Biopsychology is the study of biological mechanisms of behavior and mental processes.  It examines the role of the nervous system, particularly the brain, in explaining behavior and the mind. This section defines biopsychology, critically examines a common myth about the brain, and briefly surveys some of the primary areas of research interest in biopsychology.

Nonhuman Animal Subject Research One area of controversy regarding research techniques is the use of nonhuman animal subjects. One of the keys to behaving in an ethical manner is to ensure that one has given informed consent to be a subject in a study. Obviously, animals are unable to give consent. For this reason and others related to animal welfare, there are some who believe that researchers should not use nonhuman animal subjects in any case. There are others that advocate for using nonhuman animal subjects because nonhuman animal subjects many times will have distinct advantages over human subjects. Their nervous systems are frequently less complex than human systems, which facilitates the research. It is much easier to learn from a system with thousands of neurons compared to one with billions of neurons like humans. Also, nonhuman animals may have other desirable characteristics such as shorter life cycles, larger neurons, and translucent embryos. However, it is widely recognized that this research must proceed with explicit guidelines ensuring the safe treatment of the animals. For example, any research institution that will be conducting research using nonhuman animal subjects must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). IACUCs review the proposed experiments to ensure an appropriate rationale for using nonhuman animals as subjects and ensure ethical treatment of those subjects. Furthermore, many researchers who work with nonhuman animal subjects adhere to the Three R's: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement (Russell & Burch, 1959). Replacement suggests that researchers should seek to use inanimate systems as a replacement for nonhuman animal subjects whenever possible. Furthermore, replacement is also suggested to replace higher level organisms with lower level organisms whenever possible. The idea is that instead of choosing a primate to conduct the study, researchers are encouraged to use a lower level animal such as an invertebrate (a sea slug, for example) to conduct the study. Reduction refers to reducing the number of nonhuman animal subjects that will be used in the particular study. The idea here is that if a study can learn sufficient information from one nonhuman animal, then they should only use one. Finally, refinement is about how the nonhuman animals are cared for. The goal is to minimize discomfort that the subject experiences and to enhance the conditions that the subject experiences throughout their life. For a full discussion of the Three R's, see Tannenbaum and Bennett (2015). In conclusion, many researchers argue that what we have learned from nonhuman animal subjects has been invaluable. These studies have led to drug therapies for treating pain and other disorders; for instance, most drugs are studied using animals first, to ensure they are safe for humans. Animal nervous systems are used as models for the human nervous systems in many areas. Sea slugs (Aplysia californica) have been used to learn about neural networks involved in learning and memory. Cats have been studied to learn about how our brain's visual system is organized. Owls have been used to learn about sound localization in the auditory system. Indeed, research using nonhuman animal subjects has led to many important discoveries.

Ethics in Neuroscience Research Research has a very complicated history with respect to ethics. This is true when discussing our treatment of nonhuman animal subjects and our treatment of human subjects as well. Let’s start by discussing the ethical considerations for nonhuman animal subject research. Nonhuman Animal Subject Research One area of controversy regarding research techniques is the use of nonhuman animal subjects. One of the keys to behaving in an ethical manner is to ensure that one has given informed consent to be a subject in a study. Obviously, animals are unable to give consent. For this reason and others related to animal welfare, there are some who believe that researchers should not use nonhuman animal subjects in any case. There are others that advocate for using nonhuman animal subjects because nonhuman animal subjects many times will have distinct advantages over human subjects. Their nervous systems are frequently less complex than human systems, which facilitates the research. It is much easier to learn from a system with thousands of neurons compared to one with billions of neurons like humans. Also, nonhuman animals may have other desirable characteristics such as shorter life cycles, larger neurons, and translucent embryos. However, it is widely recognized that this research must proceed with explicit guidelines ensuring the safe treatment of the animals. For example, any research institution that will be conducting research using nonhuman animal subjects must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). IACUCs review the proposed experiments to ensure an appropriate rationale for using nonhuman animals as subjects and ensure ethical treatment of those subjects. Furthermore, many researchers who work with nonhuman animal subjects adhere to the Three R's: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement (Russell & Burch, 1959). Replacement suggests that researchers should seek to use inanimate systems as a replacement for nonhuman animal subjects whenever possible. Furthermore, replacement is also suggested to replace higher level organisms with lower level organisms whenever possible. The idea is that instead of choosing a primate to conduct the study, researchers are encouraged to use a lower level animal such as an invertebrate (a sea slug, for example) to conduct the study. Reduction refers to reducing the number of nonhuman animal subjects that will be used in the particular study. The idea here is that if a study can learn sufficient information from one nonhuman animal, then they should only use one. Finally, refinement is about how the nonhuman animals are cared for. The goal is to minimize discomfort that the subject experiences and to enhance the conditions that the subject experiences throughout their life. For a full discussion of the Three R's, see Tannenbaum and Bennett (2015). In conclusion, many researchers argue that what we have learned from nonhuman animal subjects has been invaluable. These studies have led to drug therapies for treating pain and other disorders; for instance, most drugs are studied using animals first, to ensure they are safe for humans. Animal nervous systems are used as models for the human nervous systems in many areas. Sea slugs (Aplysia californica) have been used to learn about neural networks involved in learning and memory. Cats have been studied to learn about how our brain's visual system is organized. Owls have been used to learn about sound localization in the auditory system. Indeed, research using nonhuman animal subjects has led to many important discoveries.

One Major Concern With Lesion/Surgery Studies One thing to remember about all studies of lesion or surgical patients is that the ability to generalize to the population during these studies may be questionable. It is important to keep in mind that that the reason these patients are studied is because they had some sort of issue with their brain. It is reasonable to wonder whether their brains are representative of “normal subjects,” that is, subjects who do not have lesions or other issues. For example, perhaps someone with epilepsy, after having years of seizures, has a different brain organization than someone without epilepsy. In that circumstance, what we learn from them in a split brain study may not be applicable to a non-epileptic population. References

One additional way to study the contributions of each hemisphere separately is through a procedure known as a Wada. In a Wada procedure, a barbiturate (a depressant drug used for various purposes including sedation) is used to put one half of the brain “to sleep” and then the contributions of the other hemisphere can be studied. Wada procedures are typically used for similar purposes as are cortical mapping techniques such as direct cortical stimulation. But, instead of mapping specific functions to specific areas (as with direct cortical stimulation), the Wada procedure maps functions to hemispheres. Usually, the Wada is used to identify which hemisphere is responsible for language processing and memory tasks. Although scientists know that language functions are usually in the left hemisphere, it is not always the case (particularly in left-handed individuals), so the Wada will help determine which hemisphere is dominant for language functions. For memory functions, both hemispheres play a significant role, but during the Wada, doctors are able to determine which hemisphere has stronger memory function. One Major Concern With Lesion/Surgery Studies One thing to remember about all studies of lesion or surgical patients is that the ability to generalize to the population during these studies may be questionable. It is important to keep in mind that that the reason these patients are studied is because they had some sort of issue with their brain. It is reasonable to wonder whether their brains are representative of “normal subjects,” that is, subjects who do not have lesions or other issues. For example, perhaps someone with epilepsy, after having years of seizures, has a different brain organization than someone without epilepsy. In that circumstance, what we learn from them in a split brain study may not be applicable to a non-epileptic population.

Another technique that is worth mentioning is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS is a noninvasive method that causes depolarization or hyperpolarization in neurons near the scalp. Depolarizations are increases in the electrical state of the neuron, while hyperpolarizations are decreases. In TMS, a coil of wire is placed just above the participant’s scalp (as shown in Figure 2.4.42.4.4\PageIndex{4}). When electricity flows through the coil, it produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field travels through the skull and scalp and affects neurons near the surface of the brain. When the magnetic field is rapidly turned on and off, a current is induced in the neurons, leading to depolarization or hyperpolarization, depending on the number of magnetic field pulses. Single- or paired-pulse TMS depolarizes site-specific neurons in the cortex, causing them to fire. If this method is used over certain brain areas involved with motor control, it can produce or block muscle activity, such as inducing a finger twitch or preventing someone from pressing a button. If used over brain areas involved with visual perception, it can produce sensations of flashes of light or impair visual processes. This has proved to be a valuable tool in studying the function and timing of specific processes such as the recognition of visual stimuli. Repetitive TMS produces effects that last longer than the initial stimulation. Depending on the intensity, coil orientation, and frequency, neural activity in the stimulated area may be either attenuated or amplified. Used in this manner, TMS is able to explore neural plasticity, which is the ability of connections between neurons to change. This has implications for treating psychological disorders, such as depression, as well as understanding long-term changes in neuronal excitability. Note that TMS is different from the previous techniques in that we are not taking images of what the brain is doing. TMS disrupts or stimulates the brain and actively changes what the brain is doing.

Using Indirect Functional Imaging Techniques to Study a Disorder: Autism Spectrum Disorder PET and fMRI studies of ASD have found different levels of neuronal activity in the amygdala and the hippocampus compared to subjects without ASD. These areas are notable because they are a part of the “social brain.” These studies have largely focused on patients with ASD when they are viewing faces. As the viewing of faces is a large part of socializing (for example, reading expressions and making eye contact) and socializing is one area where many autistic patients have issues, these studies help provide further information for doctors and researchers to use. (See Philip et al. (2012) for a review of the fMRI studies of ASD.) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Another technique that is worth mentioning is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS is a noninvasive method that causes depolarization or hyperpolarization in neurons near the scalp. Depolarizations are increases in the electrical state of the neuron, while hyperpolarizations are decreases. In TMS, a coil of wire is placed just above the participant’s scalp (as shown in Figure 2.4.42.4.4\PageIndex{4}). When electricity flows through the coil, it produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field travels through the skull and scalp and affects neurons near the surface of the brain. When the magnetic field is rapidly turned on and off, a current is induced in the neurons, leading to depolarization or hyperpolarization, depending on the number of magnetic field pulses. Single- or paired-pulse TMS depolarizes site-specific neurons in the cortex, causing them to fire. If this method is used over certain brain areas involved with motor control, it can produce or block muscle activity, such as inducing a finger twitch or preventing someone from pressing a button. If used over brain areas involved with visual perception, it can produce sensations of flashes of light or impair visual processes. This has proved to be a valuable tool in studying the function and timing of specific processes such as the recognition of visual stimuli. Repetitive TMS produces effects that last longer than the initial stimulation. Depending on the intensity, coil orientation, and frequency, neural activity in the stimulated area may be either attenuated or amplified. Used in this manner, TMS is able to explore neural plasticity, which is the ability of connections between neurons to change. This has implications for treating psychological disorders, such as depression, as well as understanding long-term changes in neuronal excitability. Note that TMS is different from the previous techniques in that we are not taking images of what the brain is doing. TMS disrupts or stimulates the brain and actively changes what the brain is doing.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is another technique for noninvasively measuring neural activity. The flow of electrical charge (the current) associated with neural activity produces very weak magnetic fields that can be detected by sensors placed near the participant’s scalp. Figure 2.3.32.3.3\PageIndex{3} depicts a subject in an MEG machine. The number of sensors used varies from a few to several hundred. Due to the fact that the magnetic fields of interest are so small, special rooms that are shielded from magnetic fields in the environment are needed in order to avoid contamination of the signal being measured. MEG has the same excellent temporal resolution as EEG. Additionally, MEG is not as susceptible to distortions from the skull and scalp. Magnetic fields are able to pass through the hard and soft tissue relatively unchanged, thus providing better spatial resolution than EEG. MEG analytic strategies are nearly identical to those used in EEG. However, the MEG recording apparatus is much more expensive than EEG, so MEG is much less widely available.

Given that this electrical activity must travel through the skull and scalp before reaching the electrodes, localization of activity is less precise when measuring from the scalp, but it can still be within several millimeters when localizing activity that is near the scalp. While EEG is lacking with respect to spatial resolution, one major advantage of EEG is its temporal resolution. Data can be recorded thousands of times per second, allowing researchers to document events that happen in less than a millisecond. EEG analyses typically investigate the change in amplitude (wave height) or frequency (number of waves per unit of time) components of the recorded EEG on an ongoing basis or averaged over dozens of trials (see Figure 2.3.22.3.2\PageIndex{2}). The EEG has been used extensively in the study of sleep. When you hear references to "brain waves", those are references to information obtained using EEG. Figure 2.3.22.3.2\PageIndex{2}: Example of EEG analysis output. Panel A represents changes in the relative strength of different frequencies in the EEG data over time. Panel B represents changes in the amplitude in the instantaneous EEG voltage over time. Noba Psychophysiological Methods in Neuroscience. CC BY SA-NC 4.0 International License. MEG Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is another technique for noninvasively measuring neural activity. The flow of electrical charge (the current) associated with neural activity produces very weak magnetic fields that can be detected by sensors placed near the participant’s scalp. Figure 2.3.32.3.3\PageIndex{3} depicts a subject in an MEG machine. The number of sensors used varies from a few to several hundred. Due to the fact that the magnetic fields of interest are so small, special rooms that are shielded from magnetic fields in the environment are needed in order to avoid contamination of the signal being measured. MEG has the same excellent temporal resolution as EEG. Additionally, MEG is not as susceptible to distortions from the skull and scalp. Magnetic fields are able to pass through the hard and soft tissue relatively unchanged, thus providing better spatial resolution than EEG. MEG analytic strategies are nearly identical to those used in EEG. However, the MEG recording apparatus is much more expensive than EEG, so MEG is much less widely available.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon of nuclear physics discovered in the 1930s, in which matter exposed to magnetic fields and radio waves was found to emit radio signals. In 1970, a physician and researcher named Raymond Damadian noticed that malignant (cancerous) tissue gave off different signals than normal body tissue. He applied for a patent for the first MRI scanning device, which was in use clinically by the early 1980s. The early MRI scanners were crude, but advances in digital computing and electronics led to their advancement over any other technique for precise imaging, especially to discover tumors. MRI also has the major advantage of not exposing patients to radiation. Drawbacks of MRI scans include their much higher cost, and patient discomfort with the procedure. The MRI scanner subjects the patient to such powerful electromagnets that the scan room must be shielded. The patient must be enclosed in a metal tube-like device for the duration of the scan, sometimes as long as thirty minutes, which can be uncomfortable and impractical for ill patients. The device is also so noisy that, even with earplugs, patients can become anxious or even fearful. These problems have been overcome somewhat with the development of “open” MRI scanning, which does not require the patient to be entirely enclosed in the metal tube. Figure 2.2.42.2.4\PageIndex{4} shows an MRI machine with a platform for the patient to lie on. Patients with iron-containing metallic implants (internal sutures, some prosthetic devices, and so on) cannot undergo MRI scanning because it can dislodge these implants.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon of nuclear physics discovered in the 1930s, in which matter exposed to magnetic fields and radio waves was found to emit radio signals. In 1970, a physician and researcher named Raymond Damadian noticed that malignant (cancerous) tissue gave off different signals than normal body tissue. He applied for a patent for the first MRI scanning device, which was in use clinically by the early 1980s. The early MRI scanners were crude, but advances in digital computing and electronics led to their advancement over any other technique for precise imaging, especially to discover tumors. MRI also has the major advantage of not exposing patients to radiation. Drawbacks of MRI scans include their much higher cost, and patient discomfort with the procedure. The MRI scanner subjects the patient to such powerful electromagnets that the scan room must be shielded. The patient must be enclosed in a metal tube-like device for the duration of the scan, sometimes as long as thirty minutes, which can be uncomfortable and impractical for ill patients. The device is also so noisy that, even with earplugs, patients can become anxious or even fearful. These problems have been overcome somewhat with the development of “open” MRI scanning, which does not require the patient to be entirely enclosed in the metal tube. Figure 2.2.42.2.4\PageIndex{4} shows an MRI machine with a platform for the patient to lie on. Patients with iron-containing metallic implants (internal sutures, some prosthetic devices, and so on) cannot undergo MRI scanning because it can dislodge these implants.

Temporal Versus Spatial Resolution Within functional imaging techniques, researchers are frequently focused on one of two questions. They may ask “When does this activity occur?” Or “Where does this activity occur?” Some techniques are better for answering one of these questions, whereas other techniques are better for answering the other question. We describe how well a technique can determine when the activity has occurred as temporal resolution. For example, was the brain region activity occurring sometime in the last hour, the last minute, the last second, or within milliseconds? While some techniques are excellent at determining precisely when the activity occurred and other techniques are quite terrible at it. Additionally, we can describe how well a technique can determine where the activity has occurred as spatial resolution. For example, did the activity occur in the temporal lobe somewhere or can we narrow that down to a specific gyrus (ridge) or sulcus (groove) of the cerebral cortex? If it occurred on a particular gyrus can we narrow it down to a particular portion of that gyrus? As with temporal resolution, some techniques are excellent at determining precisely where the activity occurred whereas other techniques are less accurate.

Functional Imaging Many researchers are also interested in how the brain works. Some studies begin with the scientific question of “what does this part do?” Or more commonly, “Where in the brain does this happen?” Functional imaging techniques allow researchers to learn about the brain activity during various tasks by creating images based on the electrical activity or the absorption of various substances that occurs while a subject is engaging in a task. Such techniques can be used, for example, to visualize the parts of the brain that respond when we're exposed to stimuli that upset us or make us happy. Temporal Versus Spatial Resolution Within functional imaging techniques, researchers are frequently focused on one of two questions. They may ask “When does this activity occur?” Or “Where does this activity occur?” Some techniques are better for answering one of these questions, whereas other techniques are better for answering the other question. We describe how well a technique can determine when the activity has occurred as temporal resolution. For example, was the brain region activity occurring sometime in the last hour, the last minute, the last second, or within milliseconds? While some techniques are excellent at determining precisely when the activity occurred and other techniques are quite terrible at it. Additionally, we can describe how well a technique can determine where the activity has occurred as spatial resolution. For example, did the activity occur in the temporal lobe somewhere or can we narrow that down to a specific gyrus (ridge) or sulcus (groove) of the cerebral cortex? If it occurred on a particular gyrus can we narrow it down to a particular portion of that gyrus? As with temporal resolution, some techniques are excellent at determining precisely where the activity occurred whereas other techniques are less accurate.

Some people may even become dependent on them.

More than half of the drug overdose deaths in the United States each year are caused by prescription drug misuse

Decades of research supported by NIDA has proven that addiction is a complex brain disease characterized by compulsive, at times uncontrollable, drug craving, seeking, and use that persist despite potentially devastating consequences.

All these drugs are dopamine agonists

The liver produces enzymes (proteins that speed up a chemical reaction), and these enzymes help catalyze a chemical reaction that breaks down psychoactive drugs

(these are called agonists) or decrease it (antagonists).

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Listed are 29 ages for Academy Award winning best actors in order from smallest to largest. 18;21;22;25;26;27;29;30;31;33;36;37;41;42;47;52;55;57;58;62;64;67;69;71;72;73;74;76;7718;21;22;25;26;27;29;30;31;33;36;37;41;42;47;52;55;57;58;62;64;67;69;71;72;73;74;76;7718; 21; 22; 25; 26; 27; 29; 30; 31; 33; 36; 37; 41; 42; 47; 52; 55; 57; 58; 62; 64; 67; 69; 71; 72; 73; 74; 76; 77 Find the 70th70th70^{th} percentile. Find the 83rd83rd83^{rd} percentile.

quadratic equation

7.1: Texting Ruins Students’ Grammar Skills

•   Language Panics Are Not New

•   Concerns over declining literacy have existed for centuries, with critics blaming new technologies, from writing itself (Plato) to television and now texting.

•   Historical complaints about student writing are cyclical, resurfacing with each new form of communication.

•   Grammar Misconceptions

•   Many critics misunderstand grammar, often confusing formal grammar rules with stylistic preferences.

•   “Correct” grammar is often based on social norms and conventions rather than fundamental linguistic structures.

•   Many so-called “errors” are actually differences in usage and evolving language norms.

•   No Proven Link Between Texting and Poor Grammar

•   Studies fail to show a direct correlation between texting habits and grammatical errors in formal writing.

•   Linguists dismiss flawed research that claims texting harms grammar, noting that most studies measure spelling and punctuation rather than grammar.

•   Research finds no evidence that students transfer texting shortcuts into academic writing.

•   Texting Is a Form of Writing, Not Its Opposite

•   Texting is a new way of communicating, not a degradation of language.

•   Young people today write more than any previous generation, challenging the idea that literacy is declining.

•   Many students differentiate between digital and academic writing, using each appropriately.

7.2: Texting Ruins Literacy Skills

•   Texting is a New Form of Writing

•   Linguists like John McWhorter and David Crystal argue that texting is an innovative linguistic phenomenon that expands communication skills.

•   Rather than replacing formal writing, texting adds to our linguistic repertoire.

•   No Clear Evidence of Harm to Literacy

•   Studies show no correlation between texting and declining literacy rates.

•   Texting requires an understanding of abbreviations, syntax, and rhetorical context, indicating that texters already possess strong literacy skills.

•   Research from Coventry University found that students who frequently use text abbreviations perform better on reading and vocabulary tests.

•   Texting Encourages Rhetorical and Creative Skills

•   Texters must adapt messages to different audiences and contexts, which enhances their rhetorical awareness.

•   The concise nature of texting improves summarization skills and word economy.

•   Texting allows for multimodal

•   Texting is Part of Language Evolution

•   Abbreviations have long existed in formal and informal writing (e.g., “B.A.”, “CEO”, “NATO”, “AWOL”).

•   Similar fears about language decline occurred with the invention of writing, radio, film, and television.

•   The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) recognizes digital literacy as essential for 21st-century communication.

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“But if you think about it from the perspective of an individual,” says lab director David Rand, “for each dollar that you contribute, it gets doubled to two dollars and then split four ways – which means each person only gets 50 cents back for the dollar they contributed.”

________

Andrea Herran, Human Resources Consultant

In larger arteries, there is also a thick, distinct layer of elastic connective tissue known as the internal elastic membrane (also called the internal elastic lamina) at the boundary with the tunica media.

Bacterial Colony Morphology

This term is not what it seems to be in that it is based in white supremacy and how white Americans consider themselves to be "Native" to the United States, due to their forced take over of the land and genocidal acts against the original Native inhabitants.

The terms Indian, American Indian, Native and Native American have been used interchangeably in academia to refer to a specific population of people having origins in any of the tribal homeland locations within the United States.

Sovereignty is a political concept that refers to dominant power or supreme authority.

When asked about the attack, Toypurina is quoted as saying that she participated in it because she ‘‘was angry with the Padres and the others of the Mission, because they had come to live and establish themselves on her land.’’

Toypurina was known as a healer and they spoke about attacking the mission. Jose gifted her with beads in exchange for her to call together the unbaptized indigenous peoples from the area. Toypurina agreed and gathered people together to plan an attack

electrical synapses current,

neurotransmitters is one type of synaptic transmission

These steps of synaptic transmission from synthesis to the eventual termination of the neurotransmitter comprise synaptic transmission.

A very small space called a synapse or synaptic gap/cleft exists between the pre-synaptic axon's terminal and the post-synaptic neuron's dendritic spine.

The neuronal cell membrane, which is composed of a lipid bilayer of fat molecules,

the neuron's resting voltage a negative bias

There are an enormous number of neurons in the human brain, but the number of possible different combinations of synaptic connections among those 80-100 billion neurons is unimaginable--one neuroscientist estimated that the number of possible patterns of interconnect between neurons in a human brain exceeds the number of atoms in the entire universe

During the resting potential ion channels to Na+ are closed.

Unmyelinated axons

The function of the myelin sheath and the nodes

Nodes contain voltage-gated potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) channels.

The second main part of the neuron are the dendrites

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science.

In a covalent bondThe electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and the negatively charged electrons they share., the atoms are held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and the negatively charged electrons they share.

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids or Bases

average product

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total product curve

P(X1+X2=2)

For example, if there are two offspring in the first generation, the probability that there will be two in the second generation is

Ella es ____________.

Ellos son ____________

Él es ____________.

Ellas son de Ecuador. Ellas son ____________.

Ellos son de México. Ellos son ____________.

Ellos son de España. Ellos son ____________.

Ella es de Uruguay. Ella es ____________.

Ellos son ____________.

thiol-containing coenzyme called glutathione

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lost a bond to hydrogen and gained a bond to sulfur

stereochemical configurations

#1 being the highest priority and #4 the lowest

all of the chiral centers

swapping any two substituents about the chiral carbon will result in the formation of the enantiomer.

stereoisomers

chiral centers,

face has a plane of symmetry, because the left side is the mirror image of the right side

Chiral objects do not have a plane of symmetry.

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I think about all the challenges that so many black millennials have to endure in a world that tells them they can be anything they want to be if they work hard, but actually doesn't sit down to listen to their dreams or hear stories about their struggle.

Now, I don't know if Troy's dreams came true. He disappeared from the program for troubled youth that he was involved in and slipped through the cracks, but on that day that we spoke, I could tell that more than anything, Troy was happy that someone listened to his dreams and asked him about his future.

Yet the amazing thing about Troy is that he still believes in the American dream. He still believes that with hard work, despite being arrested, that he can move on up.

Troy was happy that someone listened to his dreams and asked him about his future.

So Troy saw how hard his immigrant mother from Jamaica worked and how little she got back in return,

An entrepreneurial spirit, an independent streak and a dedication to his parents

they reveal the patterns of someone who is scared, troubled and unsure of the future.

The study of the ways a group, culture, or discipline constructs its history

in the United States, history is often portrayed as an objective recounting of the past using facts based on documentary evidence

Dyson challenges working class whites to recognize their common social class experiences with most people of color, hypothesizing that when white people begin to understand how they have been manipulated by white elites to focus on race rather than class, a multi-racial working class solidarity may unfold.

The method for breaking up the assignment depends on the type of reading. If the text is dense and packed with unfamiliar terms and concepts, limit yourself to no more than five or ten pages in one sitting so that you can truly understand and process the information.

You need to make a plan before you read. Planning ahead is a necessary and smart step in various situations, inside or outside of the classroom.

study English meant to study only literature from England

have high expectations for achievement and maturity, but they are also warm and responsive set rules and enforce boundaries by having open discussion, providing guidance and using reasoning

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gray matter and white matter

neurogenesis.

motor neurons

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they have many extensions of their cell membranes

Their function is to transmit nerve impulses. They are the only

In the example above, your eyes detected the skateboarder, the information traveled to your brain, and your brain instructed your body to act to avoid a collision.

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In evolutionary psychology, culture also has a major effect on psychological adaptations. For example, status within one’s group is important in all cultures for achieving reproductive success, because higher status makes someone more attractive to mates.

Gene Selection Theory

Sexual selection occurs through two processes. The first, intrasexual competition, occurs when members of one sex compete against each other, and the winner gets to mate with a member of the opposite sex. The second process of sexual selection is preferential mate choice, also called intersexual selection. In this process, if members of one sex are attracted to certain qualities in mates—such as brilliant plumage, signs of good health, or even intelligence—those desired qualities get passed on in greater numbers, simply because their possessors mate more often.