In 2005 the Food and Drug Administration ordered that Vioxx and other popular drugs for treating the pain of arthritis be withdrawn from the market. The order resulted from a finding that people taking the drugs had an increased risk of cardiovascular problems. Some researchers criticized the government’s action, arguing that concluding that the drugs caused the cardiovascular problems represented an example of the fallacy of false cause. Can you think of any reason why this might be the case?

Referring to the Case in Point “Baldness and Heart Disease,” explain the possible fallacy of false cause in concluding that baldness makes a person more likely to have heart disease.

Suppose you were asked to test the proposition that publishing students’ teacher evaluations causes grade inflation. What evidence might you want to consider? How would the inability to carry out controlled experiments make your analysis more difficult?

Some municipal water companies charge customers a flat fee each month, regardless of the amount of water they consume. Others meter water use and charge according to the quantity of water customers use. Compare the way the two systems affect the cost of water use at the margin.

Determine whether each of the following raises a “what,” “how,” or “for whom” issue. Are the statements normative or positive? A requirement that aluminum used in cars be made from recycled materials will raise the price of automobiles. The federal government does not spend enough for children. An increase in police resources provided to the inner city will lower the crime rate. Automation destroys jobs. Efforts to improve the environment tend to reduce production and employment. Japanese firms should be more willing to hire additional workers when production rises and to lay off workers when production falls. Access to health care should not be limited by income.

How might you test each of the following hypotheses? Suggest some problems that might arise in each test due to the ceteris paribus (all-other-things-unchanged) problem and the fallacy of false cause. Reducing the quantity of heroin available will increase total spending on heroin and increase the crime rate. Higher incomes make people happier. Higher incomes make people live longer.

Most college students are under age 25. Give two explanations for this—one based on the benefits people of different ages are likely to receive from higher education and one based on the opportunity costs of a college education to students of different ages.

Your time is a scarce resource. What if the quantity of time were increased, say to 48 hours per day, and everyone still lived as many days as before. Would time still be scarce?

Indicate whether each of the following is a topic of microeconomics or macroeconomics: The impact of higher oil prices on the production of steel The increased demand in the last 15 years for exotic dietary supplements The surge in aggregate economic activity that hit much of Asia late in the early 2000s The sharp increases in U.S. employment and total output that occurred between 2003 and 2007 The impact of preservation of wilderness areas on the logging industry and on the price of lumber

Explain what is meant by the opportunity cost of a choice.

What is the approximate dollar cost of the tuition and other fees associated with the economics course you are taking? Does this dollar cost fully reflect the opportunity cost to you of taking the course?

In the Case in Point essay “The Rising Cost of Energy,” what would be some of the things that would be included in an estimate of the opportunity cost of preserving part of northern Alberta Canada by prohibiting heavy crude oil extraction? Do you think that the increased extraction represents the best use of the land? Why or why not?

In some countries, such as Cuba and North Korea, the government makes most of the decisions about what will be produced, how it will be produced, and for whom. Does the fact that these choices are made by the government eliminate scarcity in these countries? Why or why not?

Does the fact that something is abundant mean it is not scarce in the economic sense? Why or why not?

Why does the fact that something is scarce require that we make choices?

Many models in physics and in chemistry assume the existence of a perfect vacuum (that is, a space entirely empty of matter). Yet we know that a perfect vacuum cannot exist. Are such models valid? Why are models based on assumptions that are essentially incorrect?

This algorithm provides a method for using row operations to take a matrix to its reduced row-echelon form

You know how to multiply a matrix times a vector, using Definition 2.2.32.2.3\PageIndex{3} for each of the three columns. Thus [102211]⎡⎣⎢10−2231011⎤⎦⎥= [−1−29733]

the energy levels get closer and closer together.

2φ

We could write a short version of the first half of the sentence, put it in a box, and point it toward a short version of the second half:

If the writer had to make their point in just one sentence, what would they say?

Denominate Numbers and Pure Numbers Denominate Numbers, Like and Unlike Denominate Numbers It is often necessary or convenient to compare two quantities. Denominate num­bers are numbers together with some specified unit. If the units being compared are alike, the denominate numbers are called like denominate numbers. If units are not alike, the numbers are called unlike denominate numbers. Examples of denominate numbers are shown in the diagram:

accept

How does it work?

diagnosis

developing

diagnosis

between

endocrine disorders

endocrine disorders

disorders

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

_____

Pathogenicity islands facilitate the sharing of virulence factors between bacteria due to horizontal gene transfer, leading to the development of new pathogens over time

different

determinants

infirmity

Advancing into the Holocene we see the “Natufian Adaptation,” where residents of this same area began to see the benefits of sedentary living in a precursor to the advent of agriculture. The Natufians consumed the same rye, barley, and wheat that their Kebaran predecessors had, but because their teeth were well-worn it appears they ate relatively more of it. Having a constant source of these grains enabled their eschewing long hunting or gathering soujourns; instead, the Natufians drew more of their meat from in and around Lake Huleh in modern Israel. Near Lake Huleh was Ain Mallaha, one of the earliest examples of year-round human settlement and an important precursor to sedentary agriculture.

Practice Problems on Dimensional Analysis

Prokaryotes were the first inhabitants on Earth, appearing 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago.

Strategies for eliminating wordiness

A lysogenic cycle kills the host cell.

Academese style: 

, any fool can make simple things complicated; it takes a genius to make complicated things simple.

Academese style: “To satisfy her hunger for nutrition, she consumed the bread.” Straightforward style: “She was hungry, so she ate the bread.”1 

Style

Coming up with Alternate Keywords

relevant scholarly article databases

Often arguments are ambiguous

Are supporters of reproductive justice always pro-choice?

vertical transmission transmission of disease between unrelated individuals

horizontal transmission transmission of a disease from parent to offspring

rhetorical tricks that you can use to reinforce your points.

official reports from government agencies or major international institutions like the World Bank or the United Nations;

textbooks written with students in mind, (2) monographs which give an extended report on a large research project, and (3) edited volumes in which each chapter is authored by different people.

Whenever you are making an argument, clearly identify the conclusion you are trying to reach and the premises you are using to arrive at the conclusion. 2) Check the premises to see if they are actually relevant in the argument you are making and if they all connect to each other. 3) Check to see that the premises actually lead to the conclusion in the right ways to support it.

Equivocation

I took some pictures of the dogs at the park playing, but they were not good.” Does ‘they’ mean the dogs or the pictures “were not good”?

Loaded Question Fallacy

Self-sealers

slippery slope

herring fallacy

non sequitur

backing

hasty generalization

The argument presents _____________ as a reason to believe _____________, but this supposed reason is just a rewording of the claim

circular reasoning

The First Amendment guarantees the right of free speech to all Americans. Therefore, teachers have the right to express themselves freely in the classroom

inductive

deductive

s.

acetylation

RNA stability is controlled by RNA-binding proteins (RPBs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). These RPBs and miRNAs bind to the 5' UTR or the 3' UTR of the RNA to increase or decrease RNA stability.

Each leading entry of a row is equal to 111.

For example, consider the linear system in Example 1.2.3 x+3y+6z=252x+7y+14z=582y+5z=19x+3y+6z=252x+7y+14z=582y+5z=19\begin{array}{c} x+3y+6z=25 \\ 2x+7y+14z=58 \\ 2y+5z=19 \end{array}\nonumber This system can be written as an augmented matrix, as follows ⎡⎣⎢⎢1203726145255819⎤⎦⎥⎥

premises

Figure 14.2.114.2.1\PageIndex{1}: Each nucleotide is made up of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The sugar is deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA

Thus, communication is always a transactional process – a give and take of messages

T and T

If the round pea parent is heterozygous, there is a one-eighth probability that a random sample of three progeny peas will all be round.

As we choose words to paraphrase a writer’s points, we will want to reread the text to see how strongly the writer suggests something or what attitude they take toward a counterargument.

We could write a short version of the first half of the sentence, put it in a box, and point it toward a short version of the second half:  

Reason → Claim Reason A → Reason B → Claim Reason A → Claim Reason B ↗

go through our annotations

We can write the claims in a map and use the arrows to show which claim works as a reason supporting which other claim. Each claim moves our mind from one idea to the next in the direction the writer wants it to go. The claim farthest to the right, the one that the others point toward, is the main point. Such maps might take a few different forms, such as these:

Sample Margin Notes on an Argument's Claims

Some need the physicality of taking notes by hand

Some need the physicality of taking notes by hand in the margins of a book or a printout. Some take notes by creating comments in Word or Google Docs.

As writers, we all have to feel at times that we are struggling in the dark.

In college, we are faced with so much pressure to perform and figure out our futures.

When I try to write, I struggle.

I have a strong sense of my opinion but a hard time explaining it.

In college, we are faced with so much pressure to perform and figure out our futures.

Thinking and writing happen in conversation,

When I try to write, I struggle

When I try to write, I struggle.

I have a strong sense of my opinion but a hard time explaining it. When I try to write, I struggle. Every time, I hope that for once writing will come easy, and every time, I end up frustrated. I have to remind myself that I have been through this struggle many times before and that certain practices help. If I stick with the process, both my ideas and my writing get clearer. And I feel satisfaction in that increasing clarity. The aha moments bring relief and some sense of wonder.

academia

fallacy

In the border argument example, the writer concedes that the counterargument does have merit

rebuttal

We ought to

solution

ften a claim of fact will be the basis for other claims about what we should do that look more like what we associate with the word “argument.” However, many pieces of writing in websites, magazines, office settings, and academic settings don’t try to move people toward action. They aim primarily at getting readers to agree with their view of what is fact. For example, it took many years of argument, research, and public messaging before most people accepted the claim that “Smoking causes cancer.”

A claim of value can also make a comparison

Alkehydes

_

problem?

1Hyperbole seems to work for the movie industry, anyway.

Solubility: As discussed earlier, nonpolar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma membranes more easily than polar materials, allowing a faster rate of diffusion.

Channel proteins

A uniporter carries one specific ion or molecule. A symporter carries two different ions or molecules, both in the same direction. An antiporter also carries two different ions or molecules, but in different directions.

The plasma membrane is “selectively permeable”. This means it allows only some substances through while excluding others. 

these cells lack a nucleus. Instead, their genetic material is located in a self-defined area of the cell called the nucleoid. The bacterial and archaeal chromosome is often a single covalently closed circular double-stranded DNA molecule.

growing stromatolites have been found in the Anza-Borrego Desert State Park in San Diego County, California.

Figure 6.5.16.5.1\PageIndex{1}: Enzymes lower the activation energy of the reaction but do not change the free energy of the reaction.

enthalpy decreases (energy is released), but there is no change in enthalpy

the cytoplasm in plants is always slightly hypertonic to the cellular environment, and water will always enter a cell if water is available.

Therefore, as a cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases.

its volume increases as the cube of its radius (much more rapidly)

counterargument

Introductions set expectations

We can try asking ourselves the following questions to see if we already have a sense of what the argument's goal is. What does the writer want us to believe? What does the writer most want to convince us of? Where is the writer going with this? If the writer had to make their point in just one sentence, what would they say?

style

idea

structure

These nodes

Often writers will strengthen their case against the counterargument by taking a step back and limiting what they are claiming. They might make an exception for a particular case which they can’t support. Or they might clarify that their claim only applies to a particular group or situation.

hey might consider the argument worth putting forward for consideration even if they are not sure it is right.

Nonassertive people may complain, but usually do nothing to gain control in their argumentative environment, because they fear they will lose from additional conflict encounters. For example, you go into a restaurant and order a steak dinner. You ask for the steak to be cooked medium, but when the meal is served, the steak is rare. Instead of sending the steak back, the nonassertive person will eat it (but not like it), pick at it, or let it sit. When asked by the server if everything is okay, the nonassertive person will respond by saying yes. The passive person does not want to risk engaging in conflict by complaining about the meal. Nonassertive people can rationalize that it was their fault the steak was served incorrectly; they must have not made their order clear; or that it is not important because they don’t have to come back to the restaurant again.

I’ll look foolish and feel humiliated if I speak up

In the map we see the argument's momentum as the reason points us toward the claim. We see how each element implies, supports, limits, or contradicts other elements. Thus, we begin to imagine where the argument is vulnerable and how it might be modified.

Once in Sahul, how humans populated Australia is still the subject of some debate between those who support the “coastal hugger” theory and those who support the idea of population by “overlanders.”

Homo erectus

bipedalism.

trigonal bipyramidal

First step is to count the total number of valence electrons. After the total number of electrons is determined, this number is divided by two to give the total number of electron pairs. With the electron pairs of the molecule, the shape of the molecule is determined based on the table shown above.

"parent structure"

It does not take steric factors, size of the substituents into account.

If electron-electron repulsive force is less, then more electron density is drawn away from the central atom E.

the repulsion would decrease in order of: triple bond-single bond, double bond-single bond, and single bond-single bond if the central atom E has multiple bonds.

VESPR

AND

The main difference in stability can be seen when comparing the lowest energy molecular orbital of 1,3,5-hexatriene and benzne: pi1. In pi1 molecular orbital of 1,3,5-hexatriene there are 5 stabilizing bonding interactions where there are 6 stabilizing bonding interactions in the pi1 of benzne. The sixth bonding interaction is made possible by benzene's p orbitals being in a ring. Because benzene's pi1 molecular orbital has more stabilizing bonding interactions it is lower in energy than the pi1 molecular orbital of 1,3,5-hexatriene. This gives benzene the additional aromatic stability not seen in the acyclic 1,3,5-hexatriene.

filmmaker

book

film

Filmmaking

&

Having Production Plan

The hypertonic solution has a lower water concentration than the hypotonic solution, so a concentration gradient of water now exists across the membrane. Water molecules will move from the side of higher water concentration to the side of lower concentration until both solutions are isotonic.

𝑆={ℎℎ,ℎ𝑡,𝑡ℎ,𝑡𝑡}

Gap1 (G1), a time of DNA synthesis (S) and Gap 2 (G2).

Evolution Is Just a Theory

replicated chromosome

macroscopic

The real importance of Chemistry is that it serves as the interface to practically all of the other sciences, as well as to many other areas of human endeavor.

atoms

One of the important characteristics of a compound is that the proportions by weight of each element in a given compound are constant

Do you remember the story about the group of blind men who encountered an elephant? Each one moved his hands over a different part of the elephant's body— the trunk, an ear, or a leg— and came up with an entirely different description of the beast.

what is the "microscopic"

compound

macroscopic and microscopic

For example

every organism has its own life history strategy.

As an example

they are commonly used

LHT

optimal foraging mode

A male

Eric Charno

Foraging

Hello.

Figure 8.1.98.1.9\PageIndex{9}:

intersexual selection

evolved, adapted

kinesis

reflex action

incorrect

innate behaviors

Early Childhood Education

The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver

persuade