The activity theory for organisations relates to how two different organisational contexts that interact with each other develop and eventually share a common language, culture and environment, in order to reach common goals.

students observe scientific processes they normally do not experience at school, and then report on what they have observed; in doing so, they develop skills such as asking questions, scientific reading, organising information and planning a presentation

Studies have also shown that learning is a unified concept; any distinction between formal and informal science learning is artificial

However, students who are not interested in school science often choose to participate in science activities outside school.

In addition, many practitioners in the field of informal science learning recognise the need to create productive collaborations between informal science education organisations and schools

leaving students with little room to develop their own approaches to answering the question

They require a question or problem that serves to organize and drive activities; and these activities result in a series of artifacts, or products, that culminate in a final product that addresses the driving question.

Drawing analogies from everyday learning, researchers argue that knowledge is contextualized; that is, learners construct knowledge by solving complex problems in situations in which they use cognitive tools, multiple sources of information, and other individuals as resources

Schooled people do better, although they rarely use the supposedly general algorithms taught in school. Instead, they invent new methods specific to the situation at hand.

Yet to be tru-ly skillful outside school, people must develop situation-specific forms of competence.

utside school, actions are intimately connected with objects and events; people often use the objects and events directly in their reasoning, without necessarily using symbols to represent them. School learning, by contrast, is mostly symbol-based; indeed, con-nections to the events and objects symbolized are often lost.

school is an institution that values thought that proceeds independently, without aid of physi­cal and cognitive tools.

Practice testing and distributed practice received high utility assessments because they benefit learners of different ages and abilities and have been shown to boost students’ performance across many criterion tasks and even in educational contexts

who believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are responsible for developing higher-order functions.

this is different than simply copying someone else's behavior.

it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed.

Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it

The goal of assimilation is to maintain the status quo. By assimilating information, you are keeping your existing knowledge and schemas intact and simply finding a place to store this new information.

Assimilation and accommodation both work in tandem as part of the learning process.2 Some information is incorporated into our existing schemas through the process of assimilation, while other information leads to the development of new schemas or total transformations of existing ideas through the process of accommodation.

The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs

Raising children free from these stereotypes and limitations, she believed, would lead to greater freedom and fewer restrictions of free will

When subjected to societal disapproval, people will often feel pressured to alter their behavior or face rejection by those who disapprove of them.

All of these influences add up to how gender schema is formed.

Gender schema theory was introduced by psychologist Sandra Bem in 1981 and asserted that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live.

People are more likely to pay attention to things that fit in with their current schemas.

Event schemas are focused on patterns of behavior that should be followed for certain events.

Punishment does not teach a person how to behave appropriately.

Skinner’s learning theories have been discredited by more current ones that consider higher order and more complex forms of learning.

Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition.

negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

Respondent behaviors

Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.

the transmission of information from teacher to learner is essentially the transmission of the response appropriate to a certain stimulus.

they focused on objectively observable, quantifiable events and behavior. They argued that since it is not possible to observe objectively or to quantify what occurs in the mind, scientific theories should take into account only observable indicators such as stimulus-response sequences.

Their methodology was primarily introspective, relying heavily on first-person reports of sensations and the constituents of immediate experiences.

This means that it does not allow for any degree of free will in the individual.

It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment).

The stimuli that have become associated with nicotine were neutral stimuli (NS) before “learning” took place but they became conditioned stimuli (CS), with repeated pairings. They can produce the conditioned response (CR).

and these cues can trigger a feeling of craving

the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus

therefore is a natural response which has not been taught

learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a positive or negative consequence.

Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

However, if the smell of food were no longer paired with the whistle, eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

the whistle sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response.

The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Behaviorism assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the environment and that environment shapes behavior.

This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.