Having to do something to both side, the bearing or binding of 2 parties equally.

Describes different sides in comparison to each-other, a gradient can be in reference to water pressure as well as many other things.

An example of this defense is how a monarch butterfly caterpillar holds on to a milkweed's toxins to then use it for their own protection and survival.

The over all number of differing variations in the region.

A progressive change over time of the nonliving factors that make up an environment examples of nonliving factors in an environment would be altitude, temperature, depth, humidity etc.

Habitat-mediated speciation is the emergence of different species throughout evolution, brought about by the natural environment and its effects.

Chlorophyll is a green pigment that is found in the chloroplasts of algae and plant cells. It works well to absorb sunlight which is then used to make carbohydrates, through a process called photosynthesis.

Hemipterans are an order of insects that share the common characteristic of a sucking mouthpart. Beatles are different because they have chewing mouthparts.

Chrysomelid beetles are commonly known as leaf bugs. Their food course are leaves .

The word ecotypes refers to different species of a plant or animal living in a specific habitat.

Allocation refers to the distribution of something for a specific purpose.

Plant defense allocation is one of the ways a plant can protect itself, its resources and reduce the impact of herbivores.

Posits are statements or arguments that are assumed to be true.

Herbivores are animals who get their energy by eating plants.

Flora refers to the diverse plant life that is within a specific region, or time period.

In this case, it's the plant life in the tropics; tropical flora.

any kind of living organism that is not native to an ecosystem and causes harm. They can harm the environment, the economy, or even human health.

An organism that benefits from living from a host which is another organism.

having a common ancestor.

early stage of development

Reproduction without a male and female.

proteins that have carbohydrate groups.

An organism that can make food.

All the genes expressed by mRNA

means preserved.

In this case, RNA and DNA are aligned to facilitate gene expression.

a complete set of genes that carry information in an organism.

an animal that does not have a backbone

means a living organism that is multicellular.

The sexual life stage of the fungi where cells become polarized, or have two obvious ends, and through cell division form long structures called hyphae. In some fungi, the individual cells are multinucleate. Only some fungi are capable of this form of reproduction; for example, baker’s yeasts used in beer fermentation are not able to grow this way.

Genetic or molecular diversification. As genetic changes occur over time (evolution), diversity will increase within a group, illustrated by branching on a phylogenetic tree.

A variation in a single base pair (A, T, C, G) in a DNA sequence. Some sites in a gene are more likely to mutate than others. Phylogenetic information is based on genetic differences between organisms, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) provide the most information.

A way to study what genes are being expressed and at what level. All messenger RNA (mRNA) is collected from a sample and each mRNA is counted to measure gene expression. The more copies of mRNA associated with a specific gene, the more highly expressed that gene is.

To learn more about gene expression through transcription, see https://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/dna-transcription-basic-detail

Generally, lichen thallus (singular form of thalli) types fall into four basic growth forms: crustose, squamulose, foliose, and fruticose.

Lichen thalli can develop into a diverse range of structures: multiple-branched tufts; flat, leaf-like structures; filamentous structures; and aggregates of tiny plates.

Organisms that live on or inside another organism and get their food from or at the expense of their host.

The naming of all living species is governed by rule books called codes of nomenclature. According to these rules, if it is discovered that the same organism has been named twice, for instance by different people who didn’t know each other at different times, then the older name is given priority and the second name becomes a “synonym."

In this case, studies of the main fungal partner in Bryoria fremontii and B. tortuosa showed that they are genetically identical, and thus the two names technically should become nomenclatural synonyms. If this rule would be followed through here, the older name (Bryoria fremontii) must be used because it is older. However, the authors chose not to follow the rule so that they would still have names to use to discuss the two different lichen phenotypes

The molecular clock theory posits that changes (mutations) occur at a constant rate, and that we can use the number of changes between any two sequences to find out approximately when the sequences diverged from one another. To apply a molecular clock to a phylogeny one must use a rooted tree (see Figure 2A).

Data used to reconstruct evolutionary relationships, such as in a phylogenetic tree, except extracted at the scale of the whole genome.

From the word contiguous, meaning a continuous set of DNA sequences.

The photosynthesizing partner in the symbiotic relationship; in this case, a type of alga.

Watch a video from the Havard Museum of Natural History about what defines a lichen. This video describes lichens, symbiosis, and the lichen life cycle. Notice that the video makes no reference to basidiomycete yeasts.

Group.

Since flies do not have verbal language, they communicate with one another by releasing and responding to chemicals known as chemosensory cues. Different cues can have different meanings. For instance, some cues released by the female can signal to the male that she is ready to mate. Other cues, like the one described here (cVA), can signal that the female is no longer looking to mate, thus driving away any unwanted males.

Chemicals with distinct smells.

An experimental method used to determine if and how much an animal enjoys one thing over another. The concept behind this is similar to a two-choice preference assay (described earlier). In this particular experiment, the researchers used a Y maze.

As shown in the diagram, the animal starts in one prong of the maze (the picture here depicts a rat, but the researchers in the current study used flies). The other two prongs of the maze are each loaded with one of the two options being presented to the animal. This could be a food reward, a physical object, an odor, etc. Whichever of the two prongs the animal opts to spend the most time in is considered its preferred choice.

Excess.

Shortage.

A genetic manipulation wherein the expression of a gene is reduced. In this case, the authors want to experimentally reduce the amount of NPF or NPF receptors (NPFR) that the flies are producing in order to inhibit the function of the NPF molecule. This is accomplished by down-regulating the genes that cause NPF or NPFR to be made.

Think of a gene as a radio with a volume knob. The cell is always making the molecules that the gene dictates (aka playing music on the radio), but a scientist can turn the knob to reduce the amount of the molecule that is produced (turn down the volume).

A technique for detecting the presence of particular substance in cells. Typically, this is done by taking the cells of interest and pouring a specialized, colored dye over them. This dye is selectively attracted to the substance that you are interested in—wherever the substance is present, the dye will stick. If the molecule you are searching for is not present, the dye will simply wash off. This technique can therefore be used to detect where in a group of cells a molecule might be present, as well as how much of that molecule is present in that location. In this experiment, the researchers poured a dye that sticks to NPF over sections of the flies' brains in order to detect how much NPF was present.

An experimental method for causing rodents to experience stress. Specifically, restraint stress involves placing a mouse in a small plastic tube. This tube is tight enough to prevent the mouse from moving too much. This inability to move causes the mice to experience intense discomfort and stress.

A species of worm that is often used to study the effects of various genes. C. elegans are used because all of their genes are known, they are relatively easy to genetically manipulate, and they have a number of genetic similarities to human beings and other mammals.

Researchers have found a number of genes in Drosophila flies that are remarkably similar in composition to genes that are found in people. Often, these highly similar genes between the two species serve overlapping functions as well. Such similar (but not completely identical) genes that exist across species are referred to as homologs of one another. As an analogy, if you think of an iPhone as a gene, then an iPhone 6 and an iPhone 8 might be considered homologs of one another in that they are extremely similar in a number of ways, but not quite identical.

The outermost layer of the Drosophila's body. Often, chemical cues used for communication between flies are found on the cuticle layer.

Unpleasant, often used to describe stimuli in experiments.

Another word for sex.

Female flies, who have never mated before, that accept the sexual advances of males, and will often mate with them. For this reason, they are considered "receptive" to the act of mating.

Refers to a type of commonly employed behavioral model in Drosophila research. In this model, a male is exposed to a female who has already mated with a different fly. The male Drosophila will attempt to court the female by carrying out a series of behaviors such as tapping her with his forelegs, or singing her a song. However, since the female has already mated, she will not be receptive to these attempts, and the male fly will experience sexual rejection. This leads to an overall reduction in the male's courtship attempts.

In behavioral neuroscience, cues refer to elements in one's environment that predict an upcoming event. For example, the ringing of the school bell at noon might be considered a cue for lunch. Cues are important because they often take on the ability to motivate organisms to do things, even though cues themselves have no inherent value.

Something that is tractable is easy to control or influence. The genetics of the Drosophila fruit fly are considered tractable because we are aware of every single gene in this species, and it is easy to engineer flies that possess or lack specific genes. This ability to insert or remove specific genes from a fly's DNA allows scientists to understand the roles that these genes play.

In neuropsychology, addictive behaviors are a specific class of behaviors that one might exhibit while suffering from addiction. An example of an addictive behavior would be compulsive pursuit of a specific substance/activity, in spite of negative consequences associated with doing so.

Refers to a set of interconnected brain areas that are involved in the appraisal and pursuit of reward. Examples of such areas include the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. These brain regions rely heavily on the use of a chemical called dopamine to communicate with one another. Source of image: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_03/d_03_cr/d_03_cr_que/d_03_cr_que.html

The common chemical name for alcohol. In a beverage such as wine, for instance, the sugar in the grapes gets converted into ethanol during the fermentation process. This is what makes wine alcoholic.

Refers to a set of neurons in the brain that work together towards some common goal. This goal can be very tangible, such as regulating a certain behavior. Often, these cells are connected to one another in a way that allows them to communicate, somewhat similar to a circuit of wires that one may expect to find in an electronic appliance.

The scientific name for the common fruit fly. These flies are often used in neuroscience research because their nervous systems are relatively simple, and they share a number of genes in common with humans.

A term for drugs that can become addictive and lead people to use them improperly due to their rewarding properties. This includes illegal drugs such as cocaine, but also legal ones such as Oxycontin.

A group of 16 dogs breeds, which are distinct from modern dogs because their DNA is less mixed. Basal breeds include: Afghan hound, Akita, Alaskan Malamute, American Eskimo, Basenji, Canaan, Chow Chow, Dingo, Eurasier, Finnish Spitz, New Guinea singing dog, Saluki, Samoyed, Shar-Pei, Shiba Inu, and the Siberian Husky.

Marks the final stage of the time period known as the Stone Age.

The characteristics of the surrounding area.

Meaning

Genetic variation is transferred from one population to another, two times over. That is, after the first transfer, there is a period of separation between the two populations and then genetic variation is transferred again.

The date in evolutionary history when different populations of dogs split from each other.

A type of technology that detects small genetic differences that occur in the DNA of a population.

An ancestor and all of its descendants.

A set of single DNA bases that tend to be inherited together from a single parent, and often vary between individuals. Variation in single bases gives us information about evolution.

Check out this video from the University of Utah to learn more about how halotypes can be used to understand genetic relationships between humans, and dogs too!

Agreement between two different approaches.

This is one way that evolution can occur. It is an entirely random process, in which some individuals, by chance, contribute more of their genes to the future population that other individuals.

Genetic material that exists in the cell's mitochondrion. It is very important for studying ancestry since it is inherited from the mother only, and it allows researchers to trace the maternal lineage.

In this case, refers to how often a set of DNA bases that are always inherited together are found in the population.

Referring to the point in time when dogs first appeared.

The average time between one generation and the next in the lineage of a population; in other words, the average age between a parent and its offspring.

The speed of change in genetic material over time.

A gradual change in genetic material, and the characteristics it codes for, over time.

A few members of a population starts a new population. This new population has less genetic variation.

Mitochondria have their own genetic material, and DNA mutations may accumulate over time.

A point on a graph of ancestry that is used to represent a split of one lineage to form two or more lineages.

Genetic material that exists in the nucleus of the cell.

This refers to a specific type of indexing (listing) strategy that is used in LSH to limit the number of hash tables and reduce computational time. Multiprobe also means that instead of only checking a single bin for similar items, it will look at nearby bins, as well, just in case.

This is a type of machine learning. Machine learning is the process of getting computers to run without being directly programmed. To do this, a computer scientist will use a sample data set to "train" a computer how to respond to a particular problem. The goal is that the computer could then learn certain rules so it can also solve the same or similar problems, even with data it's never seen before.

Deep learning extends this process to multiple layers, creating artificial networks of problem solving so that computers can solve more complicated problems without human input.

Set apart/isolate.

The straight-line distance between two points in Euclidean space. Euclidean space is the traditional, three dimensional x,y,z space that is commonly used in geometry.

By means of testing or observation rather than pure theory.

This is a general problem-solving technique that involves listing all possible candidates for a problem and checking one by one to see which one(s) provide a solution.

In this example, it would be like taking your picture of an elephant and manually comparing it to every other image on the internet to find the 100 that are most similar. In problems where there are many possible candidates for a solution (like this example), brute force linear search is an extremely slow way of trying to solve the problem!

A question or search. A query image is the image "in question"—in other words, the image you want to find similar matches to.

A connection matrix is a table of rows and columns, each consisting of positions on a graph. In each entry, the matrix has a 1 or 0 depending on whether the row positions and column positions are adjacent (1) or not (0).

It is random because the connections (representing connections between PNs and KCs) are random, and it is binary because it uses only ones and zeros.

One of the types of cells found in the "mushroom bodies" of the olfactory system. Mushroom bodies are important for olfactory learning and memory and—you guessed it—look like mushrooms.

Any thing or event that causes a neuron or set of neurons to become active.

When a nerve cell is activated, it triggers an action potential, which is a temporary change in the electric charge of the cell relative to its surroundings. This depolarization causes nearby locations to similarly depolarize (think about a line of dominoes falling down) and an electrical signal travels through the brain.

On a graph, this action potential looks like a brief spike, which is why scientists sometimes refer to this process of neurons releasing action potentials as "spiking."

Relating to the nose/sense of smell.

A chain of amino acids.

An unproven principle assumed to be true for the basis of further discussion or logical reasoning.

Scientists now call these STOP codons.

A change in the DNA base sequence. There are many types of mutations, but here Crick refers to changing a single base of DNA (a point mutation).

A mutation that occurs naturally in biochemical systems.

A section of DNA or RNA that codes for a specific chain of amino acids.

A chemical chain made up of nucleotides. "Bases" (see previous) are one component of a nucleotide.

A chemical chain of amino acids.

In this case, a grouping of young male mosquitos.

A general term for the mosquito genus, Anopheles.

A zygote is the cell that is formed by the male sex cell (sperm) and the female sex cell (egg). Zygotic refers to the characteristics of these early cells involved in replication.

Designation of where genes or genetic elements are in genomic sequences. This is by far the most difficult task for scientists and is constantly changing as we learn more about important features of the genome. Often, uncommon model organisms (like the mosquito) suffer from lack of annotation because scientists are more focused on other organisms like the human, mouse, or fruit fly.

Introns (noncoding regions) that are not excised—that is, cut out—during pre-mRNA processing.

An experimental method developed in the 1980s that amplifies a specific, targeted region of the genome, generally 100-5,000 base pairs (bp) in length.

To learn more, check out this video animation from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.

A genetic sequence on the Y chromosome that is a signal for maleness (hence the M).

Flies, including Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly), Lucilia cuprina (Australian blow fly), and Musca domestica (housefly), and the (red flour beetle) Tribolium castaneum.

A compound that is required for the activity of a protein; in this case, TRA2 is needed to help tra cut dsx.

Lowercase tra is the gene, either in DNA or RNA form; all-caps TRA is the protein.

Downstream genes; those that are expressed/utilized later in the pathway.

Bioinformatic software programs or algorithms that can compare genomic sequences within, between, and across species to detect similarities and differences in DNA sequence.

Easily changed through evolution.

Most genes have several coding regions (exons) interrupted by noncoding regions (introns). When a gene is translated into pre-mRNA, the molecule will go through processing to remove the introns and create a mature mRNA molecule for translation. During this process, exons or parts of exons can be removed as well, leading to several possible mRNA versions (also called isoforms) of the same gene. In this case, males will express one version of the gene and females will express a different version of the same gene.

The process by which and organism becomes male or female, in both appearance and reproductive capabilities. In most species this is genetic, as discussed here. However, in other species, sex can be determined by external environmental factors and can sometimes switch during the organism's life.

Describes waste excreted after the digestion of food from the bowels or intestines.

A tool designed to control cellular behavior using genetically encoded proteins that are responsive to light.

A therapy option for Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and depression patients where metal electrodes are inserted into deep brain regions. A stimulator placed near the collarbone then sends an electrical impulse through wires connected to the electrodes targeting neurons in the implanted area.

Executive impairments refers to reduced function of processes such as memory, controlled response to stimuli, capacity to shift between different topics and tasks, and focus—which regulate and control cognitive functions.

Training that is done to reinforce a particular response.

Training that is performed to teach individuals to predict a negative outcome following a stimulus. This is done by repeatedly presenting an individual with a negative outcome following stimulation.

A positive or negative inclination toward something.

Internal or external changes in the environment that elicit an action.

An object used for drug use, production, or storage.

A building block molecule, can combine to create polymers.

Aliphatic means that there is no aromatic group on the ester part of this molecule. A p-nitrophenol group is an aromatic ring with an oxygen linked to one carbon and a nitrogen attached to two oxygens linked to the opposite carbon.

Maltose is a disaccharide sugar that is closely related to sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose is made of two simple sugars—glucose and fructose—whereas maltose is made of two glucose molecules.

A process is one that occurs at close to room temperature. Usually between 20°C to 40°C.

GenBank is a database that is publicly available where scientists can record genetic sequences and the proteins they code for so that future researchers can use the information. Protein Data Bank focuses on recording and storing information on the shape of 3D molecules, particularly proteins.

A solution that prevents the pH from changing very much. A buffer is made of a weak acid and a weak base together in solution. If you add acid, it just reacts with the base. If you add base it reacts with the acid, preventing the pH from changing.

Represents a micrometer, 10^-6 meters, or about the size of a single bacteria cell.

A type of polymer that is used in many types of plastics. A polymer is a chemical made of one or more simple molecules, called monomers, bonded to itself many times in a repeating pattern. You may recognize polyester as the fabric that makes up some types of athletic wear.

Catabolic reactions are those that break molecules into pieces, often giving off energy in the process. Enzymes are a type of protein that help speed up reactions. Therefore, catabolic enzymes help speed up reactions that turn large and complex molecules into smaller and more simple ones.

Here, they mean a process determined by genetics.

Females who had already mated with a different group of male flies.

In neuroscience, a pathway or a circuit refers to a set of neurons that function together to accomplish the same function. Often, these neurons all release the same molecules. Here, the researchers draw our attention to sets of neurons releasing NPF, referring to this as the NPF-NPFR pathway.

There are a number of steps that must occur in order for neuropeptide F to be made in the brain. The first step is for the gene for NPF to be read by the neuron. As the neuron reads this gene, it makes a local copy of it known as a transcript. These transcripts are then recruited by other processes in the cell that use the transcript as an instruction manual about how to build the NPF molecule. Each time a new NPF molecule is made, a new NPF transcript must be created first. For this reason, it is possible to measure the amount of NPF transcripts in the brain in order to determine how much NPF was being produced.

Another experimental method for causing rodents to experience stress in which newly born offspring are taken away from their mothers and raised separately. The lack of a mother present to raise the babies causes them to experience intense stress.

Flies do not have language, but they do communicate with one another in other ways. One such way a fly may communicate is by releasing chemical compounds that other flies can sense, and accordingly respond to. These are known as chemosensory cues. In this case, the authors are referring to chemicals released by the mated female that signal to the male that she is no longer receptive to mating.

In vitro: takes place outside the organism (in a test tube, culture dish, etc.)

In vivo: takes place inside the organism

Changing the function of an enzyme.

Stretches of repeated sequences of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). Most repetitive regions do not occur in protein-coding genes. However, they are important for regulation.

A domain is a section of a protein that has a specific function.

Systems of enzymes and accessory molecules that carry out cellular functions.

A common method of RNA editing in which the nucleoside adenosine is converted to inosine by the removal of an amino group.

A process when expression of a particular protein is suppressed at the level of RNA.

This is similar to knockout, where the expression of a protein is blocked at the DNA level. Unlike knockout, knockdown can be reversed.

The most widely used method for knockdown is RNA interference.

Cells that are no longer capable of dividing (undergoing mitosis).

Drugs that inhibit the effects of histamines, compounds released by cells in response to inflammatory reactions. These are commonly used to treat allergies.

Describes systems consisting of living organisms. Here, the authors believe that interactions between different microbiota communities may contribute to some variation in genera abundance they could not account for.

Two variables are collinear if they can be predicted from each other accurately, suggesting that they are highly correlated. It is often redundant to have both variables if they are collinear because they can be used as proxies for each other and may hamper interpretation of results.

Refers to anything that has a random probability distribution that can be analyzed statistically, but not precisely predicted. Here, the researchers suggest that some variation in genera abundance might be due to random, uncontrollable factors.

These drugs might include birth control.

A class of psychoactive drugs commonly used to treat anxiety.

This type of medication eases constipation by pulling water back into the colon to soften stool.

Refers to organisms that convert hydrogen into an energy source.

Refers to traits that describe dimensions of the human body; like height, weight, or body fat composition.

A set of data that gives information about another set of data. For example, the author and date describe a document.

Refers to a bioinformatics technique in which the presence or absence of traits across a large number of species can be used to infer biological connections.

A patient's account of their medical history.

A practice in which the storage, shipping, and distribution of samples are continuously kept in a temperature controlled environment. This prevents samples that may be sensitive to temperature fluctuations from degrading.

Plural form of the taxonomic rank, genus.

An exponential distribution is a type of probability distribution, In general, a probability distribution shows the probability that an event (such as a neuron firing) will occur over a given time interval. Specifically, an exponential distribution describes a situation where the probability that the event will occur is proportional to the length of the time interval.

Note: In the image, the x-axis is time, the y-axis is the probability, 1/λ is the mean (average) of the distribution. Each lamda(λ) curve represents an exponential distribution with a different mean.

Spherical structures located near the surface of the antennae lobe in the fly's brain.

Thinly populated. Here, it means that each tag consists of only a small percentage of the neurons present in the olfactory circuit. That is, only a small percentage of neurons fire action potentials in response to the odor.

A type of algorithm that takes a point in a data set and then seeks to find other points in the set that are most similar to it.

Fossil fuels are also called carbonaceous fuels because they are high in carbon compounds.

Part per million (ppm) is a unit of concentration commonly used in atmospheric science and is equivalent to 10\(^{-6}\).

Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are small particle that facilitate cloud growth by serving as location of water vapor condensation in the atmosphere. Aerosols often act as surfaced for cloud droplet growth.

The \(\delta\) is a Greek symbol used to represent instantaneous change. Here, the authors are providing a numerical value of the change of aerosol optical depth in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), compared to natural background.

Particles, or aerosols, in the atmosphere, such as dust or smoke, scatter or absorb sunlight. Aerosol optical depth (AOD) tells us how much sunlight was prevented from reaching the surface due to these particles. It is a unitless values that corresponds to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere over the location where is was measured, often using a satellite.

Sulfate aerosols are formed from the condensation of oxidized sulfur dioxide (SO\(_2\)) emitted from fossil fuels combustion or volcanoes. Because humans are the main source of sulfate aerosols, the concentration of this particle is higher over land in the Northern Hemisphere, which the majority of industrial processes take place. The remainder of this paper provides more details on the different impacts these aerosols have on the Earth system.

Planetary albedo is a measurement of the amount of light reflected from the surface of a planet, in this case, the Earth. Aerosols that reflect more light, such as sulfate aerosols, will enhance the planetary albedo so more incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space. Scientists estimate that Earth's average albedo is 0.3.

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air (actual vapor density) relative to the amount of water the air could hold (saturation vapor density)

It is given by: \(Relative Humidity\) = \((\dfrac{actual vapor density}{saturation vapor density})\)\(*100%\)

The relative humidity is simply a way for meteorologists and scientists to describe how much moisture is in the air at a give temperature. You and I might feel this on a warm day, where is feels much hotter outside when the humidity is higher.

Hygroscopic means that the particle has the tendency to absorb water or to react with water.

Flux means a change in, so in this case, the authors are referring to a change (in and out) of the global mean top-of-the-atmosphere radiative forcing.

In this case, deliquescent means that the particles absorb moisture.

Any organic substance that is not directly involved in the growth, development, or reproduction of an organism. Vulpinic acid is an example of a secondary metabolite.

A segment of DNA that does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes.

This is the asexual life stage of fungi, where reproduction is achieved by budding of mononucleated cells.

The shape or form of an organism.

The molecular clock can be adjusted (i.e. calibrated) using fossil data from any taxa represented in a rooted phylogeny, in order to put an approximate date on the nodes of a phylogeny.

Recently, new lichen fossils were found, giving us more insight into the co-evolution of lichen symbionts.

https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/artful-amoeba/new-trove-of-lichen-fossils-expands-total-from-15-to-167/

A group of organisms that clusters together on a phylogenetic tree to the exclusion of all other groups.

In this case, meaning an abnormal outgrowth on the Parmeliaceae thalli.

Plural form of the taxonomic rank, genus.

This is a gene that helps stabilize the ribosome. It is found in all living organisms, so this gene is often used in phylogenetic comparisons of different species.

A taxonomic group of any rank, such as species, family, or class.

The traits that an organism displays. Phenotype results from the interaction of a genotype with the environment.

The gene sequence that an organism carries.

The fungal partner in the lichen symbiosis.

A transcriptome sample that is taken from a collection of organisms. mRNAs must be mapped onto each of the genomes from the organisms in the sample in order to figure out which gene came from which organism. In some cases, there is not a genome available for mapping and instead mRNA is mapped against a large database in order to find a close relative and guess where the mRNA could have come from.

In a laboratory setting; that is, outside of their normal biological context.

Resistance, in this case.

Denotes a laboratory culture that is free from living organisms other than the species required. In this case, lichens could not be formed in a laboratory using only the two known species.

A type of symbiosis in that the relationship is beneficial to both organisms involved.

The outermost layer of the lichen's thallus, where the lichen comes into contact with the environment.

Organisms, often fungi or bacteria, that live within a plant.