Explicitly compares EP to U.S. Congress -> but ELECTORAL CONNECTION to electorate is "remarkably weak" unlike in US -> therefore cannot directly apply theories of what influences Congressional actions to EP, because can't take into consideration the effect of voter punishment / needing to please one's constituents.

" there remains one glaring difference between the US Congress and the European Parliament: in the former there is a powerful “electoral connection” between citizens and elected legislators, whereas in the latter this connection is extremely weak." Actually "almost nonesixtent!"

Aha -> not low voter turnout, but because they only vote for MEPs based on NATIONAL performance of the parties they belong to (think of RN in France -> French voted en masse for them in EP elections because EM government was doing so poorly IN FRANCE -> has nothing to do w/ how EM government is acting in the PARLIAMENT itself.

"Specifically, the election and reelection prospects of almost all MEPs have more to do with the position of the MEPs' national party in the domestic arena—such as the party's governing status, the timing of the European Parliament election in the national electoral cycle, and the performance of the national government—than with how the MEP has behaved or what the MEP has done inside the European Parliament"

Means that in order to win EP seats, domestic parties must please voters DOMESTICALLY instead of specifically in regards to the EP -> unlike in US where parties at House and executive levels are the same / impact same electoral issues.

"The lack of an electoral connection is mainly due to the incentives of national parties to treat European Parliament elections as midterm polls on the policies and performance of the current domestic government. These incentives mean that most national parties would rather campaign on their policies and candidates for domestic office rather than on the record of their politicians, or the behavior of the political group to which they belong, in the European Parliament."

One issue is voting system - Preferrential ballots mean tyhat voters get to choose more directly their candidate for MEP as opposed to just following domestic trends -> some countries have this, others don't. - "Although all member states use a system of proportional representation (PR), about half of the member states use a preferential system, i.e., “open” list PR or single transferable vote. In these countries, voters can choose between candidates from the same party as well as between parties. In contrast, the “closed” list operating for the European Parliament elections in the other half of the member states only offers voters the chance to choose between preordered lists of candidates from each of the parties. For example, MEPs elected under preferential systems tend to spend more time campaigning directly to voters and representing the interests of their constituencies in the Parliament than MEPs elected under closed-list systems (Farrell & Scully 2007). Furthermore, voters are more likely to be contacted by candidates and be better informed about the elections under open-list electoral rules (Hix & Hagemann 2009). Inside the Parliament, MEPs elected under preferential electoral systems tend to be more independent from their national parties and more responsive to the instructions from their European political groups (Hix 2004)." - idk but dw about it

Actions we must explain with alternative means (i.e., not voter pressure): - "the voting behavior of MEPs, the assignments and activities of MEPs in committees, the formation of political parties in the Parliament and coalitions between these parties, and the way the Parliament and MEPs behave in legislative bargains with the EU Council and Commission must be explained by other political motivations, such as the policy objectives or career incentives of MEPs."

• MEPs are MORE ABLE TO ORGANIZE INTO BLOCS OF ALIGNMENT ON SIMILAR ISSUES -> NOT ALONG PARTY LINES -> On healthcare, for instance, might be pro-MAID and anti-MAID factions that cross party llines.
• "internal politics in the European Parliament. We now know that the Parliament, like almost all other democratic legislatures, is dominated by political parties, both as organizations and as political coalitions of like-minded legislators. We also know that majority coalitions in the Parliament tend to be policy specific, with a center-left majority forming on some issues and a center-right majority forming on other issues. How and why this occurs has not been thoroughly investigated yet." "Regarding policy objectives, MEPs are motivated to secure policy outcomes in the Parliament as close as possible to their personal preferences. This helps explain the development of the political groups, for example. The political groups in the Parliament do not help MEPs get reelected but do enable them to organize with politicians with similar preferences across a range of policy issues to influence the policy agenda and policy outcomes in the Parliament. From this perspective, the political groups in the European Parliament are rather like the parliamentary factions that formed in many national parliaments in Europe and North America in the nineteenth century, prior to mass democratic elections, which emerged to promote their members' policy positions rather than to fight election campaigns "
• Lastly, CAREER OF MEP MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN ANALYSING THEIR VOTING BEHAVIOUR IN EP -> some MEPs see this as "retirement home" / golden parachute or being put out to pasture -> much lower stakes, probably more likely to vote however they want -> OTHERS see this as STEPPING STONE to electoral politics nationally -> therefore might play it safer or appeal way more to voters in their domestic constituency.
• "Regarding career incentives, in an early study of MEP careers, Scarrow (1997) identifies three main roles of the European Parliament in career trajectories: (a) as a stepping stone and training ground for a career in national politics; (b) as a reward after a career in national politics; and (c) as a long-term career in EU politics. Whether an MEP is trying to return to national politics, regards the Parliament as a “retirement home,” or sees it as a permanent career should have a significant influence on both how active that MEP is likely to be in the Parliament and which types of activities the MEP is likely to prioritize. The career path of an MEP is also likely to influence how he or she campaigns in European Parliament elections. For example, Hobolt & Høyland (2011) find that MEPs who have already pursued a career in domestic politics tend to be more successful in European Parliament elections, in that they receive a higher share of votes than do inexperienced national politicians or Brussels-based careerists."
• Likewise, MEP's w/ established representation are voted for more often. (as in any elecoral system?)

DOES compare it to Congress in US -> but notes that THERE IS A WEAK ELECTORAL LINK TO EP -> i.e., low voter turnout or participation / care for who is elected to EP -> very unlike Congress where midterms are generally impactful Here, Cannot APPLY models / theories that concern congress to the EP -> instead MEPS ARE NOT PUNISHED ELECTORIALLY IN THE SAME WAY HOUSE REPBS/DEMOCRATS ARE -> PUBLIC IGNORES THEM SO LESS ACCOUNTABILITY - Says this is IMPORTANT opportunity for researchers to study "electoral" politics w/o needing to consider the influence / pressure of electoral punishment/needing to please one's constituents -> instead must consider motivations for actions taken in EP as being influenced by PERSONAL / CAREER GOALS and ISSUES ABOUT THE ACTUAL POLICIES AT HAND (also likely the influence of pressure groups / lobbyists, if not elecvtorate)

QUESTION -> what kind of data do we have on lobby groups as pressure groups on EP ? Says that we can't rely on explaining MEP motivations based on electoral pressure -> instead only on career aspirations of MEPs and actual policy issues -> but what about non-electoral (i.e., voter) external pressures?

" Finally, the lack of a strong electoral connection in the European Parliament is both a challenge for researchers and an opportunity. The fact that MEPs are unlikely to be rewarded or punished in elections for their actions inside the Parliament means that theoretical models cannot simply be taken “off the rack” from the study of the US Congress, where a strong electoral connection is a standard underlying assumption. But the lack of an electoral incentive also provides an opportunity for European Parliament scholars to develop different theoretical underpinnings of some of the standard explanations for legislative behavior. If the formation of parties or the division of labor in committees cannot be explained by electoral incentives, then other motivations—such as policy concerns or career paths—need to be taken more seriously. If we can understand how career and policy motivations shape legislative behavior in the European Parliament, this knowledge will supplement or perhaps even challenge the general models of legislative behavior that assume that reelection is the dominant goal of legislators."

Regardless, NEXT research step is to see what EU has actiually done to IMPACT the EU in the long run -> what would EU policy be like WITHOUT the check of the Parliament? Would it be more to the left? More to the right? More or less integrationist?

"is to shift the focus from the power of the European Parliament in the EU to a focus on what the Parliament has actually done with this power. For example, are EU policy outcomes more or less integrationist or further to the left or the right than would be the case without the Parliament, and how has this changed over time?" - Interetsing that most coalitions in EP are ISSUE SPECFIIC -> i.e., less of a left/right divide and more in general coalesce around a single issue to push through or push against.

EP has SIGNIFICANT impact on EU legislation -> issue is whether or not is wields MORE power than the Council -> does it have to compromise more? This is an interpretation of the evidence (depends on it)

"both the theoretical models of the EU legislative process and the empirical evidence support the view that the Parliament now has a significant impact on policy outcomes in Brussels, particularly under the codecision (ordinary legislative) procedure. There is an unresolved theoretical debate about whether the different majority requirements in the two institutions—qualified majority in the Council and simple majority in the Parliament (at least at first reading)—means that the Parliament has to compromise more than the Council."

1. "Expert interviews to locate actors and outcomes" -> Woah, basically (this is kinda intuitive) questions the POWER of the EP regardless of how many amendments get accepted -> this is because some of those amendments may only come through the EP as a vehicle -> actually ORIGINATE in lobbyists, pressure groups, or infiuential actors who persuade EP to make such an amendment. Shackleton says that this is like knowing the MATERNITY of a child but not the paternity (gross. Gender as a useful category of analysis) " by the early 2000s, there was growing skepticism toward the amendment analysis method. One problem, as Michael Shackleton, a senior official in the Parliament administration, once put it at an EU studies conference in the late 1990s, was that “as in life, it is much easier to know the maternity than the paternity of amendments.” 1 A legislative amendment may come from the Parliament, but that does not mean that the Parliament was the source of the amendment. An amendment could come from an interest group, a national government, the Commission, or even the Council." EP vessel through which amendments are birthed, but paternity (I guess) in question.

EMPIRICAL METHODS for registering / guaging power of EP - Trickier / more subjective than you might think (how does one measure "power" ?) - Basically TWO options 1. Amendment analysis -> Remember, this is a shuttle / "navette" system -> bills are PROPOSED by the Council, pass through the Commission, and then finally to the Palriament, where amendments are proposed and then sent back for approval (veto power) -> amendment analysis is tracking which bills that ARE amended by the EP actually become law (i.e., if they are accepted by the EC / Council) " "Amendment analysis as applied to the EU legislative process was pioneered by Amie Kreppel as a graduate student of George Tsebelis. The method developed by Kreppel involved identifying each legislative amendment proposed by the Parliament and tracking whether the amendment was then accepted by the Commission and ultimately by the Council, and so became law." -> also takes into account severity of the changes. -> finds that 37 and 28% of amendments by EP were accepted by Commission but only 20% and 19% accepted by Council (which therefore became law) -> strongest (obviously) on more bipartisan issues. Conclude that you can predict the fate of a bill by following the COMMISSION's behaviour 85% of the time, but smaller success rate for predicting based on EP's behaviour -> Therefore EP is LESS powerful than when it had conditional veto procedure (before EU treaty / 1993). "found that “the Commission's behavior predicts the overall fate of an amendment 85% of the time under cooperation and 70% of the time under codecision” (Tsebelis et al. 2001, p. 595). They concluded that when the Commission and Parliament worked together, they were more powerful under the cooperation procedure than under the codecision procedure, as Tsebelis had predicted." - However, Hix notes that OTHER studies have pointed to opposite outcome, particularly after Amsterdam treaty / 2000s

This section is like: "what actually ARE the powers of the EP -> can it de facto do something that is not written out explicitly ?"

Abstract This chapter examines the origins and evolution of settler identity in colonial Algeria. Dealing with the years between 1830 and 1939, it examines the process by which Europeans of diverse origins gradually merged into a distinct people, the French of Algeria. The settlers defined themselves in opposition to the native Arabs and Berbers. The Jews of Algeria were in-between: non-Muslims caught between the Christian and Muslim inhabitants of the colony. Even before World War II, native intellectuals and religious leaders were calling for liberal reforms. Social conditions (residential segregation, inequality in education, linguistic and religious differences, and avoidance of mixed marriages) kept colonizer and colonized apart. The Europeans of Algeria considered themselves French, but their identification with the metropole remained contingent.

Again, Muslims rarely accept citizen ship because it requires de facto renunciation of Islam

"During the entire colonial period, perhaps 6,000 Muslims crossed to the other side and acquired French citizenship."

WOAH -> makes a "provocative" claim that race was not the dividing line between French and Arabs/Berbers so much as ETHNICITY AND RELIGION -> in part because "phneotype" was harder to distinguish between each other -> in other words, OFFSPRING of mixed marriages were hard to identify; harder to identify than mixed children of half African or half Vietnamese descent, for instance

Evidenced by the fact that gender parity was mostly the same in Algeria, UNLIKE in other (less settlement based) colonies -> Therefore white women less prized / protected (because there's plenty of them, less of a status symbol) Also security in idea of sexual UNAVAILABILITY / sequesteredness of Muslim women.

Eviudenced by the "unimportance" of the "metis question" in Algeria compared with other colonies.

If true makes it kinda more similar to NI

"In Indochina as well as the military regions of Saharan Algeria—parts of the empire where European women were rare, and the subject population was phenotypically distinct—the legal and social position of the offspring of mixed relations was an important question. Not so in the bulk of Algeria, where the sex ratio of the settler population was near parity; the offspring of sexual relations across the settler-Muslim divide were less easy to recognize; and sequestration limited the sexual freedom of Muslim women. Provocatively, the unimportance of the métis question in colonial Algeria suggests that ethnicity and religion—not phenotype—provided the main principle of differentiation between the colony’s peoples."

"During the quarter century after 1880, only 139 marriages joined a Muslim man and a European woman; and only 126 joined a European man and a Muslim woman. Most Europeans believed that unyielding cultural differences doomed such unions to failure."

Mixing was not common -> Catholic missionaries forbiodden because "Islamic society hinged on its male-female relations." -> wanted to keep them from rebelling.

"Unlike French colonies in Oceania, Indochina, and sub-Saharan Africa, to calm the Maghreb the authorities barred conversion by Catholic missionaries. The incommensurability of Islamic society hinged on its male-female relations. Polygamy was not widespread in Algeria but accepted; so were divorce and arranged marriage. By comparison with Europeans, spouses in a Muslim marriage tended to be further apart in age.33 The rarity of Muslims—particularly girls—in public schools raised an additional barrier to intermarriage. Others came from residential segregation in the cities and the rural concentration of the Muslim population. Absence of opportunity meshed with attitudes."

This is UNLIKE everywhere else the French colonised -> tried to undertake conversions (to varying success). Islam also maybe more establsihed / entrenched here?

All this unequal / stratified / caste system "ethnocracy" COEXISTS w/ liberal republicanism

"Rather than contradicting French institutions, ethnocracy coexisted with liberal republicanism.92 Political authority and armed force backed a system of unequal rights integral to the colonial order. When the state suffered shocks, therefore, the colonial system trembled."

This is all "ethnocracy" (Whatever that means)

Basically -> PN are CONSTRUCTED identity always in flux -> Jews, for instance, are welcomed because they are French / French citizens, and yet antisemitism remains rampant. Likewise, CLOSE PROXIMITY of the society to Arabs means cultural mixing, even if denied by PN.

Againb, a creole / mixed / constructed society.

Metropolitan France considers PN to be a frontier / less "civilized" population, like Corsicans (or Ulstermen, for that matter).

"Usually contained, tensions in defining who was French would persist beyond the 1930s. French in name, the Jews provided a counterweight to the Muslim majority; yet anti-Semitism persisted among the Europeans. The French from France enjoyed prestige relative to other Europeans. Outside the colony, the metropolitans might consider their Algerian compatriots like the Corsicans: French, yes, but not as civilized. Living alongside les Arabes, native expressions and folkways rubbed off on the French. Alongside such manifestations of hybridity, comparison with so much that was not French provided an everyday reminder of difference."

Damn -> UNLIKE AUSTRALIA / US / EVEN CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA, NO PHYSICAL SEGREGATION BETWEEN PN AND MUSLIMS: - Is a CASTE society but encourages mixing -> like in Horne though, obviously paternalistic attitudes -> every Euro had his 'good Muslim' etc. There also WERE some mixed marriages apparently

"Although they overlap, personal identity is not reducible to social identity. A small number of Europeans married non-Europeans. Friendship could cross the lines of religion. At work, in the market, and around the neighborhood, Muslim might harmonize with Christian. A doctor, nurse, teacher, administrator, or soldier might care deeply for the Muslims in their charge. Algeria was a caste society but without the walls between the Brahmin and Dalit in India. Unlike North America and Australasia, the towns and cities of Algeria bred contact between native and nonnative. Every European had their Good Arab, a cynic might wisecrack. This seems too formulaic. For starters, it dismisses the duties that honor might impose on a European’s relations with others. The civilizing mission democratized noblesse oblige. It misses the overlaps between groups, moreover, the multiple ways that social circles intersected—sometimes fleetingly, other times not."

Basically, fall of Algeria to FLN further radicalizes PN against not only Muslims but also the FIFTH REPUBLIC -> National Front and French Far Right will both benefit from / try and take advantage OF this resentment.

Again, author's argument is that French far right / NF in the latter 20th century was rooted IN decolonization and the influx / resentment of PN -> capitalises off of that populations' distrust of Muslims ("immigrants").

"Though never achieved, a melting pot of Europeans—the French of Algeria—was in the making."

"Settlers of non-French stock entered the working class that would build and maintain the colony’s roads, ports, dams, railroads, warehouses, and public buildings"

Basically, settlers of NON-French descent arrive from Malta, Italy, and Spain -> become working class subjects, in similar way Scottish Presbyterians are slightly disenfranchised / etc underclass to Anglicans.

Like Presbyterians, eventually welcomed INTO the fold while Muslims left out to dry (though, of course, Cats did enjoy far more privileges by the 20th century than Muslims did).

"A nationalization law of 1889 extended French citizenship to the Algerian-born children of non-French Europeans. "

UNLIKE plantation economies / colonies in Caribbean, France views Algeria as a SETTLER COLONIAL opportunity -> "pioneer society" of Eueopeans working their own land.

"Unlike its plantation colonies in the Caribbean or later possessions in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, France envisioned a “pacified” Algeria as a pioneer society of European smallholders working their own land.11 "

Postwar after decline, conceive of themseves as OPPRESSED population (in NB, minority?) because of federal support for French language rights :

"Grand Master of Order in New Brunswick, saw as “definite discrimination in favor of one religious denomination in Canada” (Hall Citation1950). To Orangemen, this apparent embrace of Catholicism by the national government of Canada represented both the continued efforts of the Catholic Church to enforce its political will over the nation and a culmination of a century-long challenge to the Protestant traditions of Canada."

Declined because of negative reputation ASSOCIATED with all this nativism.

"Intertwined with its concern over ethnicity and religion, the Orange Order presented an ideal of nationalism that differed from the conceptions being presented by other competing forces in Canada. While other Canadian thinkers of the early-twentieth century began to conceive of the Canadian nation as part of a North American tradition, along with the United States, or as a “northern nation” that, through the crucible of Arctic winters, broke with both the United States and Europe, the Orange Order celebrated Canada’s past and highlighted the accomplishments of the British in North America. As the Order saw it, the devotion of the Loyalists and the rise of an Anglophone hegemony in North America were foundational to Canada’s existence, and both owed their authority to British identity. Indeed, as Scott See points out with regard to the Orange Order’s Loyalism of the nineteenth century,

The Orange Order served as a form of connective tissue to link the Old World with the New. It was a complex blend of full-throated dedication to the Empire and unswerving support for Britain’s imperial endeavors, as well as an indigenous pronouncement of colonial identity in North America that applauded the British connection, yet strove to articulate a distinct identity of Britishness. (See Citation2014, 182)"

SPECIFIC BRITISH IDENTITY -> EMPHASIZES THIS AS OPPOSED TO NORTH AMERICAN IDENTITY CURRENTS LIKE AMERICANISM

Flag is connection between Canadians and the British Empire. Again, empty identity though. " “the Flag of our Empire, upon which the sun never sets is the outward and visible emblem of our loyalty to the great British Commonwealth, of which Canada is an integral part” (“Forms” Citation1937). This strain of thought resembled the ideas of imperialists like Stephen Leacock, who before World War I had advocated for greater Canadian participation in British imperial ventures as a means of sharing in the military victories won overseas and the spread of Anglo-Saxon civilization."

AND YET does note circular in which term "racially" is used to distinguish French from English -> does NOT comment on the use of this term

"Almost a decade later, a circular published by a Loyal Orange Lodge in Moncton questioned “whether the Protestants of these Maritime Provinces realize the significance of the changes being brought about, racially, religiously, and politically” as a result of the growing Acadian population’s presence in New Brunswick society. Of particular concern to the Orange Order was the “illiteracy” of the Acadian population; as the circular claimed, “do you know that at the last census taken in 1931 we had in New Brunswick 134,499 French Roman Catholics, and that out of this total, 33,804 speak FRENCH ONLY?” Again only threat to "Protestant identity in the province." More concerned w/ religio-language divide.

I guess he's framing this as a kind of CIVI nationalism rooted in Protestant ideals of individual liberty, monarchal loyalism, and anti-authoritarianism. And yet idk, nebver considers the ethnic elements. "This loss of political control fed into the long-standing conspiracy held by Orangemen and other nativists that the Catholic Church sought to undermine the democratic authority of the British community through its own institutions, such as local school boards and the politics of the province. To this end, the lodge vowed that “we will oppose … with every organized legitimate means in Our Power … if the Board of Education persists in forming the regulations unto our school system without the sanction of the People” (Loyal Orange Lodge No. 162, Citation1929)."

"Anglophone Protestants"

LOL and KKK both dislike Church for banning intermarriage ->need dispensation in order to do so -> cite as "backwards" evidence , etc.

"The Orange Order’s interest in marriage law was shared by the New Brunswick Ku Klux Klan, which in 1930 attacked Catholic opposition to a proposed divorce law in Ontario as an example of the Church’s attempts to control the lives of Canadians. Both organizations, and as political scientist Corey Robin points out, conservative movements more generally had long supported a strong interest in personal relations as a reflection of civil society. As Robin states, “when the conservative looks upon a democratic movement from below, this (and the exercise of agency) is what he sees: a terrible disturbance in the private life of power … it is his apprehension of the private grievance behind the public commotion that lends his theory its tactile ingenuity and moral ferocity” (Rob"

Was seen as attempt to control the PROTESTANT CIVIL IDENTITY of Canada (by Church)

"The Catholic Church’s effort to intervene in the Tremblay marriage was interpreted as an effort to supplant the traditional Protestant civil identity of Canada."

Likewise, Catholic schooling / organization was seen as SUBVERSION OF and threat to "Protestant" (again, unspecififed) status quo

More sources / evidence for conspiracy / nativism hypothesis :

" To this end, the Order made the Catholic Church’s supposed conspiratorial actions a key part of its recruitment messaging. An Orange pamphlet entitled “Are You An Orangeman? If Not, Why Not?” suggested a series of questions to potential members, some of which ranged from “are not the aims and objects of the Church of Rome the same now as they were a century or two ago?” "

Notably, however, mixes sectarianism with ULSTER SPECIFIC sectarianism -> quotes from Hanson's railing against "Seinn Feiners" in NB -> is this not an importation of the Ulster-specific conflict, as opposed to general prot-cat confluict or anti-catholicism?

"rote to a fellow Orangemen during his first campaign for the federal House of Commons in 1921. He complained that “I am being made a target by the Seinn Feiners [sic] element here because of my connection with the Lindsay Crawford matter [an Irish-Canadian advocate for Irish independence], for which I am blamed as the leading spirit by that element.” Hanson further claimed that “there is a good deal of ugly talk among the Seinn Feiners here. They will, I know, vote against me to a man” (Hanson Citation1921).Footnote2 To counter this conspiratorial element, Hanson hoped the Orange Order might protect his electoral chances. His correspondent, H.C. Hockin, expressed his belief that “it would be quite improper for [the Grand Organizer of the Province] to canvas for you or make political addresses on your behalf.” At the same time, he also supported Hanson’s claims, stating that “the administration has the solid and active hostility and opposition of the Sein Fein element in the country” and that “I cannot understand any Orangeman voting against [the] present Government” (Hockin Citation1921"

POLITICAL / IDEOLOGICAL foundations of Orangeism manifest in the social / economic activities and interests of LOL:

"By the 1920s and 1930s, the Orange Order was well established in New Brunswick. During the 1920s, there were 169 lodges throughout the province, mostly distributed in the south and west, with a number along the Maine–New Brunswick border (Thorpe and Enman Citation1997, 9; Houston and Smyth Citation1980, 70). Orangemen looked on with worry at demographic and economic shifts in the province, which it viewed as evidence of growing Catholic influence across New Brunswick and indeed across the country. Its conspiratorial vision of the Catholic Church’s efforts to enforce its own hegemony over Canada extended from the purely political to the social and civil fabric of New Brunswick. The school system was a particular source of fear, as efforts to expand bilingual education and the funding of separate schools for Catholic parishes were presented as tentacles of the Catholic machine, meant to undermine Protestant and Anglophone hegemony and enshrine the Church’s control of the province. The Orange Order’s efforts to enforce its particular form of nationalism, which emphasized loyalty to the Crown and the firm maintenance of Protestantism and the English language in the province, were closely related to its fear of losing New Brunswick’s British identity."

Particularly for schooling -> In doing all this, are exercising a MAINTENANCE OF British identity (again, not talking about how that identity may be constructed, imported, etc.)

"As Irish Catholics fled the horrors of the Potato Famine, New Brunswick became a destination for refugees with severe consequences for the demographic balance of the province. Orangemen in New Brunswick reacted to the massive influx of Irish Catholics during the 1840s with violence."

• Famine is catalyst for violence in NB in 1840s -> balance tips in favour of Cats -> so main reason for formation and opposition is opposition to Catholicism

Notes that NB FOUNDED BY EMPIRE LOYALISTS fleeing the US Rev: - "ounded by Americans fleeing the new United States for the British Empire, See argues that “Loyalist fervor provided the guiding ethos for the British colony of New Brunswick,” a key ideological source for the Orange Order’s longevity in the province (See Citation1993, 14). "

Therefore Loyalism / Protestantism INHERENT to the region -> again doesn't mention the ethnic divide

(Spitting -> could be like " main divide in scholarship is over whether or not it is an ethnic imposition / ethnically specific -> in either case, evideence that it is COLONIAL for both of them).

Again, "specific COLONIAL context" but mirrors almost exactly the context of NI -> fight against French Catholicism. Says it is concerned w/ local issues but this is the same issue , just w/ added ethni-linguiustic edge.

Anyway, "Bulwarck of colonial Protestantism"

"As a colonial organization, See argues that “rather than borrowing only Irish and English political concerns, the Canadian Orangemen charted a course that addressed local issues and attempted to solve indigenous problems,” particularly in the wake of Irish−Catholic and French−Canadian migration into English Canada (See Citation1993, 75). The Orange Order thus established itself in Canada as a “bulwark of colonial Protestantism,” in the words of Smyth and Houston, a force for the maintenance of a British identity in the face of a significant French Catholic population. The Order opposed the extension of French culture into Ontario, particularly with regard to the use of the French language in schools, and insisted that “the movement of French colonists into Ontario had been a ‘popish plot’” (Houston and Smyth Citation1980, 3, 47)."

Borrows from See's work on OO in 19th century NB (Not a Catholic Nation?) - WAS BRITISH but then evolved into "distinctly Canadian" instiutution by its "colonial status and its new context in North America" -> but isn't Ulster ALSO a colonial status / settler society? Anyway, EMBRACED BY BRITISH settlers -> again uses a seemingly universal definition of British.

Strangely DOESN'T see it as an ethnic export -> YES is Nativist -> but in sense that all British settlers (no matter where / under what circumstances) are Nativist.

"As a nationalistic and imperially minded Protestant organization in the heart of the British Empire, the Orange Order was well situated to expand its footprint to the new colonial settlements emerging across the globe. Canada was chief among them."

Ie, DOESN'T mention Ulster at all pretty much / specificity of ethnic lobby. (What does Kauffman say about settlement in NB? Was that mostly Ulster or other Prots?)

SASH. I will steal this, thank you: " In Ireland, Smyth and Cecil Houston claim that the Order came to be seen as a group for the “industrial and commercial class … in Ulster which saw its interests as being intimately linked with those of Britain,” presenting a force against Irish home rule and Catholic ascendency on the island more generally (Houston and Smyth Citation1980, 10–13)."

Identifies Order's origins AS COLONIAL (ie out of "settlers" in Northern Ireland)

"virulently attacked Catholic and Francophone rights and privileges in society. The New Brunswick branch of the Orange Order was particularly engaged in political and social anti-Catholicism throughout its long history. With the rise of the New Brunswick Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s, the Orange Order found an ally, drawn in some cases from its own membership, in its war against the rising tide of Catholicism in the province. Though often presented as a nineteenth-century phenomenon rooted in the religious conflict of the era, the Orange Order served as a powerful force for nativism throughout the twentieth century. While the Klan movement faded away on both sides of the border by the 1930s, the Orange Order pursued its “Protestant Crusade” against the Catholic community for decades after."

Basically, sums it up as NATIVIST organization primarily -> aim is first and foremost nativism / Protestant supremacy -> notion TIED UP IN British / Protestant hegemony. - Again cites links to Klan in New Brunswick -> continued on "decades after" in railing against Catholicism. Did have social policies but again was most concerned with its crusade (does this allows us to understand its expansion?)

Weird "third-way" Loyalism project -> Anti-Bush, Anti-war. Maybe still conservative? Last updated in 2007 so idk.

What's the difference between a scoping study and a systematic review [of literature] ? - Systematic review looks at ONE "well-defined" research question -> allows for identificatiuon of "appropriate study designs" (of that question?) in advance. -> seeking specific ANSWER to that / those question/s. - Scoping study = takes a broad selection of topics (in a research area? -> allows for planning of many DIFFERENT "study designs" -> not addressing quality of the studies, not trying to answer an overarching research question, per se.

ALSO CONC -> IND SHUT OUT OF THIS "REPUBLIC OF NEW ICELAND" GOVT -> Resources competition for fishing the rivers / lake. - "They were excluded from participation in local government. In fact, one of the district council’s first resolutions stated that it was “necessary to have the Indians removed from the Icelandic Reserve particularly as the Indians also spoil the shing in Icelanders River by blocking the mouth of the river completely with their nets.” " - Barred from local councils set up by Icelanders - "New Iceland’s municipal government was an attempt by the colonists to integrate their reserve into the state system as a political and administra-tive unit. Its architects aspired to further cement their hold on the territory and its resources, as set aside for them by the Canadian government, over and above competing Aboriginal claims. " -> basically DID ALL OF THIS TO SHORE UP THEIR OWN POSITION WITHIN BORUGEOIS CANADA / FEDERAL SYSTEM AT EXPENSE OF IND. -> "POSITIONED THEMSELVES AS AGENTS OF THE NEW ORDER and sought to align themselves with its vanguard element – Anglo-Canadian settlers from Ontario." -> USED REPUBLIC /MUNICIPAL GOVT TO FORCE HAND AND ENTICE FEDS ACCEPTANCE OF THEIR INTEGRATION INTO COLONBY -> FUCKED OVER IND SO THAT THEY COULD BE ASSIMILATED INTO ANGLO SAXXON SOCIETY -> MODELING THEIR OWN LOCAL GOVT AFTER ONTARIO/ETC -> TO FIT WITHIN THE BOURGEOIS LIBERAL STATE WAS THEIR TOOL TO BE FURTHER INTEGRATED -> ACCEPTED MORE REFORMS CYNICALLY SO THEY'D BE ACCEPTED. - AND YET ALSO were able to use the new govt as tool to agitate / force govts hand to get them reforms / concessions -> but had to becvome model minority good little bourgeoisie fdemocrats / liberals before doing so. - "and sought to align themselves with its vanguard element – Anglo-Canadian settlers from Ontario." 162

Carved out position ahead of / in spire of Aboriginal claims.

"The municipal organization of New Iceland clearly pushed the bound-aries of Canada’s constitutional order. By presenting a local government to Ottawa as a fait accompli, the colonists inverted the top-down approach to the delegation of state power contained in the British North America Act." - Basically the NI government was an obstacle in consolidating BNA / Confederation -> idk man. -> basically it was ALREADY ESTABLISHED SO THEREFORE NEEDED TO BE ACCOMMODATED FOR AND INTEGRATED INTO THE UNION -> colonists forced the govts' hand -> but govt wins out in the end because fed regulations / rule are consolidated -> again, not revolutionary in any way -> simply want to be PART of the Liberal / private property established order and have a better share of the yield or whatever. - Q? -> could be cool to comapre this to British racial settlers -> how much of this was just spread of bourgeoisie capitalism / concern w/ private property -> ALMOST ALL OF IT BECAUSE OF THE WOMEN'S DESIRE TO OWN LAND OF THEIR OWN -> EVERYONE HERE IS ENAMOURED W/ SETTLER LIFESTYLE AND W/ CQRVING OUT GREATER AUTONOMY / FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE FOR THEMSELVES / BETTER MATERIAL CONDITIONS -> BUT IMMIGRANTS AND WHITE WOMEN SHUT OUT FOR DIFFERENT REASONS -> ALL A GREAT BIG SCRAMBLE - If one takeaway, its that the myth of the "open continent / empty lands" must have been irresistable -> REALLY bought into mythos of civilisation. - Next Q would be...How much of the Iceland experience wad about civilising / missionary work for British / Western superior standards of living (again rural ICE vs industrialized women idk). 160

Resistence to allowing IC privileges of whites by Cons in parlaiemnt -?> needed to become naturalized first - " “ere is no better way to prepare the people for becoming British subjects and appreciating British institutions than to permit them to act as this Bill provides.”However, the bill’s opponents in Parliament argued that the Icelanders must attain the formal citizenship rights of British subjects through the process of naturalization before they could undergo this type of tutelage. Conservative members correctly pointed out " - But libs wanted to pass bill to get them on their side, etc.

lmao -> exact same political system as Ontario (unclear whom influenced whom)

BEFORE THIS had just been NWT government -> appointed council, very little political representation.

Anchored, if anything, in notions of liberal private property -> WNATED TO BUY INTO THE FEDERAL STATUS QUO -> JUST WANTED A MORE REPRESENTATIVE PIECE OF THE PIE THAN WHAT THEY HAD -> WERE NOT REVOLUTIONARY IN ANY WAY. - "However, local resistance did not entail rejecting the liberal principles of private property, market production, and individual rights in favour of some communitarian alternative. "

"In New Iceland, the municipal system deepened the spatial practices of colonization and surveillance that had developed during the smallpox crisis. e geographical units established by the Dominion Lands Survey and enforced by the public health measures taken during the quarantine were carried over into the local administration system." - Ie, actually deepends regime / health regulations imposed federally during epidemic -> just one example of how fed law was enforced / regulated / became more entrenched because of grassroots local govt. - So this govt / "Republic" is from-below reponse to draconian measures / mismanagement by District in wake of epidemic, but IS overall a win for the federal govt ad it entrenches rule.

ALLOWED for state to become more legitimized / integrated into local systems of government.

Chapter deals w/ myth of "Republic of New Iceland" - Not really a Republic -> was MUNICIPAL government -> never declared sovereignty - Again part of myth of ISOLATION of community -> in fact not independent, was PART OF WIDER LIBERAL CANADIAN ORDER -> this kind of liberal govt on municipal level ALLOWED FOR THAT INTEGRATION INTO NEW POST-EPIDEMIC (?) STATUS QUO - Emerged as response to desires for better local govt than District of Keewatin (which emerged after pandemic specifically) - "is chapter argues that New Iceland’s municipal system played an important role in integrating the reserve into the project of liberal colonial rule in the Canadian Northwest. Local government was critical to the Icelanders’ emergence as political subjects aligned with the norms and as-sumptions of the contemporary liberal state. Although the system had some unique features and a distinct terminology, its signicance does not reside primarily in its institutional features. "144

So not just a biological thing, epidemics are DECLARED by governments -> in NI case, used to justify declaration of a new TERRITORIAL government: - "Epidemics are not merely the naturally occurring result of discrete bio-logical processes – they are also events produced by public health authorities as they assess the situation and take particular courses of action. As an epidemic is pronounced upon and dealt with, new forms of knowledge about a population are generated, and new modes of governance are cre-ated. e response to the  smallpox epidemic was, quite literally, the creation of a new government that served as both a board of health and a territorial authority for Keewatin, the region north and east of Mani toba, which included New Iceland. is territory was created in October , largely at the behest of Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris, to respond to the planned transfer of the government of the North-West Territories from Winnipeg to a point farther west." - Government in turn responsible for dispossesing IND 109

Archival silence : Rebekka (Ind woman) was among first to identify the disease -> distributed aid -> however not mentioned in / ignored by Board of Health records - "d. Rebekka’s role in dis-tributing helpful medicines to smallpox victims was noted in community histories, but her name does not appear on the list of Icelanders employed by the Keewatin Board of Health or in the ocial documentation."

"The second part of the response was the attempt to contain the disease geographically. Doctors were sent out to vaccinate the residents of the nearby Indigenous communities of St. Peter’s, Brokenhead, Fort Alexander, and Fairford. New Iceland was put under quarantine and a cordon sanitaire was established at Netley Creek, about sixteen miles from the northern border of Manitoba at Boundary Creek. "

• ie, need to GEOGRAPHICALLY establish quarantine (fucking obviously I'm going to shoot myself jesus)

"e quarantine and sanitation measures used by the Keewatin Board of Health during the smallpox epidemic belong within Bashford’s model. e dynamic interaction between the state’s coercive force and disciplinary modes of governance allowed the new colonial organization of space to take hold around Lake Winnipeg"

"John Taylor wrote to Ottawa, complaining that the quarantine was main-tained even though no fresh cases of smallpox had appeared for ve months and the colony had been thoroughly disinfected. On  August, Minister of Agriculture C.A.P. Pelletier wrote to Morris, saying that the quarantine should be removed at once as it was “extremely cruel and unnecessary.” e military garrison was nally recalled on  July, but the colonists were not informed of this development. According to Taylor, they discovered it by chance when a hundred young Icelanders, both male and female, set out to force their way through the quarantine barriers.¹ In a later report, Taylor made a scathing attack on the administration of the Keewatin Board of Health: “e oppressive quarantine, so unnecessarily prolonged, has done more serious injury to the colony than can be repaired easily ... No quarantine procedures of a like character would have been submitted to for half the time by Canadians." - In other words, quarantine only lifted after intense protest (John Taylor, IND, writing to Ottawa -> seen as unnecessary and cruel -> on Icelanders).

Also irony that Icelanders suscetability to Smallpox was interpreted as marker of racial INFERIORITY by Brits once Icelanders had actually arrived,

"e discourses of race, progress, and civilization, typically used to legit-imate rule over Indigenous people, could also mark certain Europeans as racially and culturally degenerate." IE, Icelanders are agents of dispossession and favoured racial colonists -> but also foreigners -> non-English speakers in a British Imperial sphere. Lower down on the hierrachy (OBVIOUSLY COMPARE W/ BRITISH WOMEN'S POSITION.

THIS IS WHY NEW ICELAND AS SEPARATE COLONY / ISOLATIONIST INSTITUTION MYTH / UNDERSTANDING IS SO HARMFUL -> BECAUSE ICELANDERS PARTICIPATED IN THIS SYSTEM OF / BENEFITTED FROM FORCED DISPOSSESSION / ALLOCATION OF IND TO RESERVES IN AFTERMATH OF EPIDEMICS

"e – smallpox epidemic demonstrates how Aboriginal dispos-session and immigrant resettlement were linked through the overlapping government apparatuses of land administration and public health. e measures taken in response to the epidemic allowed the Canadian state to exercise new forms of power over spaces and people where its influence had previously been quite limited." - Again, role of state here is key -> NOT INEVITABLE -> response to epidemics allows state to clamp down even further on IND and dispossess them almost entirely, or whatever. - Yes, excatly this -> EPIDEMICS GIVE STATE EXCUSE TO QUARANTINE IND, THEREBY ALLOCATING THEM TO CHOKED OFF RESERVES. FUNDAMENTALLY ALTERED ALLOCATION OF LAND ON ORAIRRIES. - "Ultimately, however, quarantine and sanitation measures helped to reify a new spatial order mandating the compartmentalization of land and people into the system of racially segregated reserves that was integral to the Canadian colonization of the Northwest during the late nineteenth century" 98

REAL STORY is that IND disease experienced it differently over time and in different waves -> mortality was an evolving process.

AT FIRST GLANCE -> Appears to conform to notions of how colonisation went -> ie, contact between Euros and IND -> disease spreads, and then Euros take land that IND used to possess. BUT that kinda plays into narrative that this whol process WAS INEVITABLE WHEN IN FACT IT WASN'T -> THEREFORE THE LAKE WINNIPEG SETTLEMENT STORY IS ACTUALLY A GREAT CASE STUDY / MICROCOSM OF ALL PRAIRIE SETTLEMENT

Looking at 1876-1877 Smallpox Epidemic -> brought to 70 IND in region by Icelanders pop reduced from 70 to 17! In a year! Relationship was tense and complex -> after IND die, Dominion surveyors arrive and carve out the new reserve for Icelanders.

OKAY, part of ____'s question revolves around how there was a need within Iceland community to REPRODUCE their society, but to what extent? Was this like intiial QC -> OR LIKE BRITAIN AND THE IMPERIAL WOMEN IN CARTER? -> ie, wanted to EXACTLY reproduce metropole on the Plains (if agitating for moderate to radical female reform / rights) -> here, Icelandic settlers more specifically eager to escape conservative rule in Iceland and produce smaller families, have less of a breath bretahing down their necks:

• " or argues that the Icelanders chose the Lake Winnipeg site because it oered “the required isolation” to realize their ambition of preserving their language and cultural trad-itions. Although many did aspire to establish a distinctive Icelandic ethnic community in North America, they did not consider geographical and cultural isolation to be a precondition for achieving that goal. In this re-spect, the Icelandic reserve colonists were similar to the Mennonites in southeastern Manitoba; though isolation has also been an important theme in their traditional historiography, Royden Loewen disputes this emphasis, suggesting that social boundaries, which “dened the commun-ity and ordered external and internal relationships,” were more important than remoteness in shaping transplanted Mennonite communities. e rst New Iceland colonists envisioned a community that continued to use their language and to observe the religious and cultural traditions of their homeland but was also integrated with the larger economic and political structures of Anglo-Canadian settler society." 75

" e chapter locates the migrants within the social and economic structures of Iceland and considers the circumstances that made emigration a possible and desirable" 76?

BASICALLY -> New Icelandf favourd by ON and MB govts -> sponsored by both (?) certainly by Dominion of Canada -> because of racial purity / ideal that they will make better settlers. "e dominion authorities also seemed pleased. e report of the Select Standing Committee on Immigration and Colonization stated, “e site chosen appears to be favourable for Icelandic settlement, and the Committee are of the opinion that coloniza-tion of this nature should be encouraged.”³" 74

"n building their lives in the reserve, the Icelanders had to navigate the uncertain waters of state immigration and colonization policies that were unevenly implemented, subject to change, and not amenable to their con-trol. ey also had to carve out a niche for themselves in an unfamiliar environment alongside an Aboriginal population that sometimes rendered assistance but also resented their presence and feared its consequences for its own competing claim to the region. All these issues were in play during the single greatest crisis to aict the Icelandic reserve – the smallpox epidemic of –."

Basically eventually instead settle into SMALL GROUPS OF FAMILIES in NS, ON, MB, etc -> no City on the Hill or anything. Suppose kinda like the spread of women on Prairies -> DID settle in communities of a few families, etc. 91-92

FUCK -> Icelanders given priority to create a reserve OVER THE REQUESTS OF INDIANS FOR SAME LAND -> blatant white supremacism: - "e deputation had no trouble securing this tract as a reserve. e De-partment of the Interior immediately approved its request, and Minister David Laird later instructed Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris that in his treaty negotiations with the Lake Winnipeg Indians, the claims of the Icelanders would take precedence over any Indian reserves that would be created in the same region."

Many farmers and government ocials believed that the traditional structures of rural society were not only the stable core of the economy, but also the moral centre of national life.

Also RURAL NATIONALIST MOVEMENT (Not entirely unlike Ireland) -> erosion of rural social structures is LOSS for Icelandic culture as a whole, BECAUSE IT IS ICELANDIC culture. "moral centre of national life..." etc.

LIKE osme women in GB (claimed that sending women out weakened the women's autonomy movement on the homefront) some Icelanders believe that emigrants are abandoning Iceland at exact time that they need to rally against Denmark for greater autonomy.

s. Many decided to join other prospective emigrants who intended to go to Wisconsin. A few young Icelanders had gone to Wisconsin after , and when their letters were published in the newspaper Norðanfari, people became aware of the opportunities in the Midwestern United States. During the winter and spring of –, meetings were held in Akureyri to plan for a large migration to North America. ey enlisted the help of Reykjavík merchant Guðmundur Lambertsen, shipping agent for the Scottish Canadian Allan Line. e Allans contacted Canadian immigration authorities in hopes that they would oer subsidies to help boost this new source of transatlantic passengers. As discussed in Chapter , Dominion ocials took up this oer, ushering in a system of Canadian state intervention in the Icelandic emigrant market that would persist until the rst decades of the twentieth century.

ROLE OF PRINT MEDIA -> new accessibilities (better telegrams / letters and connection to outside world) -> colonial scouts go to Brasil, Minnesota -> send back encouraging news Letters published in papers, etc.

CONTRAST to British educated middle classes / elites -> here, this kind of transnational communication is new. Seems then like there is LESS of a class element to all this, fewer ideas of racial purity, or at least a unified consensus that they are ALL racially pure / "upstanding examples" of the culture or whatever.

Also, livestock trade essential to funding overseas colonisation (via trade w/ Britain) -> as we've seen, subsidixzed by ON and MB governments to come over (therefore, ANOTHER TOOL OF BRITISH METROPOLE / STATE TO SHORE UP NORTH AMERICAN FRONTIER AGAINST AMERICAN EXPANSION.

Arguably had been colonised by "mercantalist" Denmark 85 Became more integrated (think Liberalism) into world economy after 1870s -> Fishing economy takes off. Leads to RURAL population being out of work -> move to coast for comepetive fishing jobs -> shift to fishing economy leads to surplus pop that needs to be shuffled off somewhere.

(Again, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Minnesota want Nordic immigrants for superior racial profile and belief that they are well-suited (racially) to the climate).

What spurred the exodus? Surplus population (as in GB) caused by, not industrialization, but over production in agriculture (favoiurable climate in 1800-1850 -> baby boom -> come of age as soon as climate cools so go to raise families elsewhere as crop yields decline).

"Marriage and procreation were treated as privileges that were endorsed by the broader community only if the couple had attained the appropriate social position." -> marriage sacred like in Britain, but more about achieveing proper social status for BOTH of them.

Basically, society they left was filled with INTRNAL MIGRATION of single people and even families. "A system of labour bondage underpinned Iceland' s traditional rural society 84." Basically more communal focused society -> tenure contracts allowed single people (obliged them) to serve other famileis fro 1-2 years)

Not as industrialized as England in 19th century -> therefore coming from SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE environment / society -> how does this impact role of women? As we've seen, Icelandic women also included in Act that prohibits all but widowed mothers from owning land / homesteading.

LMAO

Ireland or the pope?

Likewise, on the visitation / Elmina thing -> criticises how he doesn't point out how whites visit Plymouth Rock, or whatever.

Labels condescension towards focus on present asd a kind of moral superiority about the past. "Contemporary social justice issues" -> Satia would argue, like Foley, that history and politics / the present ARE intertwined.

Also notes how laughable it is that Sweet thinks we are NOT DOING OUR JOB if we hyperfixate on the present, when in reality that IS our job.

"Sweet attacks scholarly work on “race, gender, sexuality, nationalism, capitalism” as driven by “contemporary social justice issues.” The mind boggles at having to remind a fellow historian that gender and sexuality existed in the ancient world; race was a concept in the early modern world;"

"enormous condescension" and E.P. Thompson Basically all example of what Lorenz would characterise as DURATIONAL TIME -> ie, certain histories that continue to linger, that continue to have an impact on the present (colonialism, race, patriarchy , etc)

Damn. A lot more damning -> "condescending" towards African Americans' understanding of history (but tbf, maybe more towards the "American" half of that name). Quotes the whol emotional / free labour thing about marginalized peoples explaining things to White academics. "free labour to defend their own humanity."

Criticises Sweet for saying we ignore "values and mores" of people in their own time, as well as changes over time, without providing any examples / counter points for how it should be. Notes , too , that lack of premodern positions is largely from "structural factors" and funding; ie, there isn't necessarily a hard shift towards the present (and this is true -> was there not this kind of rhetoric / focus in the 70s / etc?)

Also criticises Sweet's criticisms of 1619 because they are made from a vantage point of Western / White academic "ways of doing things" and in some ways moght be old hat, certainly aren't infallible.

Not mad at Sweet, but critical - History and politics are inseperable -> if we ignore it we are NOT DOING OUR JOB.

Remarkably tone-deaf.

DOES say he is glad of EXPERIENCE of those familes, AAs. But is worried about "erasure" of Africa and African issues - LESS THAN 1% OF AFRICANS THAT LEFT ELMINA WENT TO NORTH AMERICA.

Importantly, it looks like he IS White (not that that really matters, but in order to make these kinds of claims about the African American experience, you know...)

"Should the guide's story differ for a tour with no African Americans?"

OH SHIT -> Was super not on board but I kinda get what he's saying here - Anecdote about going to Ghana -> for conference near Elmina castle (slave depot) - Three generations of an African American family there, apparently w/ a "dog-eared copy of the 1619 project" - Then, took guided tour of castle, which he describes as having been "well-rehearsed [and] geared toward African-Americans. American influence was everywhere." - So a mixing of history (Ghana, slave trade of hundreds of years ago ) WHITH AMERICAN IDEAS AND CULTURE WAR -> material impact on Ghana, of all places (Like Israrel / Ireland / Italy / whatever). "an African American shrine" (the Castle) (and, fair enough, I say. They are the product of it). -> but comapres it to ALSO being a Ghanian archaeological / historical site / local interest point. Americanization, even if from below.

lol

And yet notes that it was TAUGHT to kids in school history lessons -> seems to me to be cherry picking what is and isn't "history" here.

Ah, but likens it to Conservatives' view that if THIS is the history being taught, just shouldn't teach history at all -> calls this "zero-sum game of heroes and villains" instead of exploring nuance, etc.

"It was not an anlysis of people's ideas in their own time, nor a process of change over time." Again -> main issue here is it's link to the present.

Has to be rooted in social justice, race, gender, sexuality, etc. "IGNORES THE VALUES AND MORES OF PEOPLE IN THEIR OWN TIMES, AS WELL AS CHANGE OVER TIME."

HUNT, historically, was agaianst "presentism" -> ie, History's focus on doing history for THE PRESENT -> linking it to present concerns. Hunt was worried about the loss of something more universal, especially with regards to new focus on late 19th century and later (fixation by current historians).

Aight, so article begins with an APOLOGY to his colleagues about a newsletter he sent out as president of AHA - Was trying to be provocative in engaging question of "how we 'do' history in our current politically charged environment." - Instead accidentaly shut the door on many, particularly Black members, by SUGGESTING THAT QUESTIONS POSED BY THOSE IN POSITIONS OF DETACHED POWER SOMEHOW MATTER MORE THAN THOSE POSED BY PEOPLE WITH "ABSENCE, GRIEF, MEMORY, AND RESILIENCE."

Lady Douglas actually has Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire chapter named after here (lol) So IS some scholarship about her / 1928 book chapter. Completely does not mention her IND heritage. childhood among "the picturesque figures of the firs tfur traders, the Canadian voyageurs, the indian trappers, the proud chiefs."

Mention of Van Kirk -> fur trade elites of Victoria.

ARGUMENT (Perry) - Argues that contradictory histories of Douglas-Connolly fam are best seen through a wide lens over the long nineteenth century - Again again -> using this family as EXAMPLE to extrapolate more info about race, empire, etc in BC but also West in general. Also doing reverse -> taking the GENERAL and arriving at some conclusions about Amelia Connoly and Douglas. - Basically a transnational history of "wider imperial world" - " Empire was global, but it played out in local spaces..."

Douglas dies and immediately becomes celebrated figure in this archival history of BC -> popular among biographers -> but NOT EASY TO FIT INTO BOX OF WHITE IMPERLAITS NARRATIVES "But the Douglas-Connolly family could not be easily accommodated within triumphalist settler narratives. " - Biographers like Bancroft gloss over his origins, find it difficult to swallow that he may have been mixed race -> also just frustrated by lack of sources. - One writes "rot" in margins next to suggestion that his mother had been creole. - Also props up his family with his wife, though there are misgivings -> "though a half-breed, was a perfect lady" (as were her daughters) -> CREDITS DOUGLAS W/ THIS -> IE, the Euro man w/ colonizing the IND women. - But Bancroft had "genuine disquiet" about fact that he had married an IND and had produced children. - COntrast here between part of biograpjhy that can be ignored (but which still looms large, ie his parentage) and the one that cannot ( and tyhere fore has to be intellectualized, ie , hius marriage and paternity). - "I could never understand how...having their name and honors descend to a degenerate posteriy' -> men like Douglas who diluyte their superior genese (says Bancroft)

Basically, what makes Douglas unique / special is that in later life (60s-70s so post retirement) -> wrote voluminous material bout personal ife -> letters diaries etc. So have two Douglases -> also material of his two sons in law. Reveal patterns of colonial maculinity, race relations, etc.

BUT Perry warns us we cannot read too much into these -> written at a specific time in his life. Might not refeclect any certainty into the past. Tread cautiously is all.

Archive is gendered from the start -> male (?) writte nculture running up against oral culture Women are not really ever incuded in archive. Only rarely. "Disassociated from women, speech, and fiction." (gendered archives are) This is the case w/ Amelia, even though she was first DAUGHTER of powerful fur trader and then wife of another Perry states that she's using other archival women info to draw conclusions / confirm theories about Amelia's life.

People I miss / wish I'd been friends with - Reid - Francois (QBR) - Pat and Emily, and Brayden - Mike - Dr. McSheffrey - Perique - Harley - James - Malcolm "Xavier" Morey (oh how life feels so varied when you think about it that way).

Douglas enteres archive definitively when, essentially, he becomes a commodity (employed as "unfree laborer" in fur trade) Within HBC archive (catelogue, lol) Implication is that archive is extrtactionary / commercial venture really. Between 1830s-50s, rose through ranks to management 1851 becomes governor of Colony of Vancouver Island. Retired in early 60s.

Whole point of this is to use the specific (Connolly-Douglas clan) to arrive at conclusions about the general (colonialism, mixed families, conceptions of race). idk what page this is.

Epistemologies / methodologies (in some ways an Indigenous way of knowing -> ie, interogating archive differently. At least a different APPROACH).

No fucking way.

Hmm... - Attack fuelled more by neglect, unstable relationships, mental illness than ideology allegedly (well, just not a totally political act)

Knigh Imagery Breivik

• Holy shit. Tie into the "brutality" emphasized and traditional masculinity steeped in violence platformed by the manifesto
• Planned to behead the prime minister and broadcast this

EVIDENCE KNIGHT - BREIVIK

• Spent much of his time playing medieval fantasy games prior to attack
• Began reading counter jihad in 2006

Evidence Knight / Breivik

• Secondary Breivik knight imagery (this is evidenced by Shaffer who notes that he made blog posts claiming to be this...)

Fjordman's actual name

Web enables this -> why its so effective

ABSOLUTE definition about what KIND of movement/tradition this is

Evidence Knighthood

• Patron and protector is Bernard of Clairvaux
• Guardian saint is George of Lydda
• Therefore archetypes of trad masc (at least George) emphasized here and drawn on for support of trad masc implementation in the present.

EVIDENCE RECONQUISTA

• Explicit role is to conduct a "reconquista" and assert trad masc

Evidence Knighthood Manliness

• DIRECTLY CITES BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX
• Who claims that a Templar Knight is fearless -> protected both through literal armour and faith
• Accompyaning photo is yet another contemporary rendition of a knight. Stoic pose, bearded, light (of faith?) shines on his face. White, obv. Armoured and muscular
• This demonstrates again that ideal man is based on knighthood -> implementation of traditional masculinity based on imagined, THEORETICAL past (Bernard is evidence of both directly citing medieval sources AND showing that this is all theory)

Evidence for terrorists and trad masc based on knighthood

• Again, submit yourself to poverty and be a REAL man who fights for the people (status quo / chivalry) and who can endure hardship / pain unlike modern feminized men

Evidence feminized society and conquered people

• Cites rape statistic for self defence justification (primary one or at least among them)

Argument Participation of Women

• Calls for women to be participants in this civil war ("brothers and sisters" used for recruitment and morale), but only in logistical function -> also not intellectuals either -> literally only subservient to men of movement

POTENTIAL CONCLUSION: - Shows that race may not actually be the biggest factor -> instead fears of emasculation lead to scapegoating race? Gender is the biggest issue here.

Argument/Evidence Knight Manhood

• Two things in this graph:

• Justicar knights will each individually become a one-man army when they commit terrorism ("brutal" methods and mention of using advanced weaponry like they think their badass). Demonstrates again that the vision of a real man is one who is proficient in many "manly" activities like technology, weaponry, etc -> is independent and able to act manly in opposition to the PC status quo

• Doing so will "humiliate" the cultural marxist system and thus weaken it -> implies an emasculation of "feminized" men and the modern PC system NOT based on Knighthood/etc. Again, asserting that imagined past of Templars and ideal masculinity is the way forward

Argument Intellectuals / intelligentsia

• What are their takes on "warrior philosophers" ?
• Where does intellect and academia fit within traditional norms of masculinity that they're seeking to replant into modern society?
• In THIS case -> arguing that the right wing "intellectual" movements must be united with the "military orders"
• SIDE NOTE: would be sick to look @ other scholarship on the far right (secondary sources) and see if this all fits together.

Argument Stretching it a Bit

• Maaaaybe could argue something like: All about CONTROL and because we're rising up in a MILITARY operation / cell structure directly modelled on the medieval Templars/warrior culture -> asserting dominance -> implicitly rising up over weaker "feminized" men and women who had gained power through being corrupted by capitalism and cultural marxism.

Argument Trad Masc Goal

• Explicitly claim that their goal is to "implement a cultural[ly] conservative political agenda"

Evidence Knight / Poverty

• This is interesting -> where does voluntary poverty fit within masculinity?
• Could argue that since women are rising in workforce (earlier complaints of this in the manifesto) and since global capitalists have risen and helped open Europe's gates, that -> Need to return to idyllic pre-modern past (does he blame rise in women's rights on capitalism? If so, we got a point in the bag)
• Again, knighthood os IDEAL man occupation here (trad masc activities like hunting, fishing, need for only men to be warriors, etc)

Argument Marxism / Women

• So...because we've established that cultural marxism's MAIN crime against the west is to weaken it through feminism and the feminisation of man / ascendency of women -> means that any reference to cultural marxism needing to be stamped out by the Knights Templar is a call to rescind women's rights and implant traditional masculinity
• Again, done so by callbacks to Knights Templar and imagined past of traditional masculinity

Evidence Knight

• Sees need for formation of this order NOT just because of Islam, but also to try Marxist criminals for their control of the west and enforcement of multiculturalism that has eroded trad masc
• Frames this movement as an Indigenous rights org -> sees ind rights as trad masc

Evidence Knight Imagery

• Throughout PCCTS history -> some characteristics have remained consistent:
• strength, honour, courage, and martyrdom
• Order must be re-founded because of the CURRENT NEED FOR THESE PRINCIPLES -> explicitly "ancient Christian military order"

Again, demographic warfare

Evidence Knight Imagery

• Lmao not even all about being a "hard man" -> emphasizes benefits of RIDING into battle because it prevented fatigue :,(
• THESE knights seen as the "only true soldiers of Europe" -> THE ONES THAT DEFEATED THE UMAYYAD INVASION AT TOURS IN 732
• Using past conflicts to show importance of having a warrior culture and the MOST traditional men

Evidence KnightImagery

• Literally calling on "Knighthood" and defining it here. Just need to link it to this being a conservative reaction to women's rights, war being used to try and reinstate/justify traditional masculinity

Evidence Templars

• A lot of insecurity here -> expressing desire to be as "skilled" and "feared" as the Templars who 'never surrendered"
• Vows of chastity

Evidence Reconquista

• Cites this as something that could be directly mirrored in the modern age (strategy)
• How to tie to masculinity? Rape of Europe?

Evidence ROME and General Hist

• Likens fall of Europe to fall of Rome but worse and more "barbaric" -> because even "more barbarians" flooding through boarders

Evidence General Hist/Violence

• Quotes Thomas Jefferson that leaders need to be reminded of liberty by rebelling masses (not medieval, but still traditional masculine societies)

Evidence (Violence)

• Need masculine warrior culture BECAUSE
• Escalating violence IN Europe from Muslim communities -> traditional, Knight-based masculinity is the way to combat this
• Cites weird numbers of rising rape, etc statistics
• Again, demographic jihad -> need traditional "military" culture to combat this by asserting dominance over women-led country

EVIDENCEPROTECTION

• Militaristic man societies need to be revived because feminism leads to women oppression through aforementioned reasons (embracing multiculturalism and opening up the door for Islamic culture, and weakening of western men to defend against these cultures)

WesternWomenExample

• Good example here of a woman ON BOARD with this movement and return to traditional masculine roles (does not, however, cite medieval conflicts or anything like that)

EVIDENCE:

• Submission to men is described as "sexually very alluring" (by a guy) and that women implicitly want to submit to totalitarian Muslim societies / men instead of feminized men in Scandinavia
• NEXT claims that Swedish women are converting to Islam -> says this is because women are attracted to the [traditional] family life -> therefore DO implicitly want a traditional family structure run by a man and therefore the west needs to rise up and put its men back on traditional warrior culture path

Fucking hell

EVIDENCE

• In Scandinavia, obvious viking heritage
• Here, actually calls out romanticization of vikings -> they're "barbarians"
• AND YET -> women are being (allegedly) sexually assault and just plain old assaulted by Muslim men entering Scandanavia while modern men stand by and watch
• This makes modern men MORE barbaric (and, consequently, less civilized) than vikings who "wouldn't have stood by and watched"

COUNTERJIHAD ARGUMENT

• Again, post from GALLIA WATCH (women?) -> on some forum mentions that Europe is being feminized by the (rest of world?) -> idea of Europe as land to be conquered and whose women can be raped -> "gang rapes" by Muslim men
• A "tribe" that doesn't protect its women behaves as if it already lost the war
• THERFORE -> suggests need to assert masculine warrior values in order to protect women from existential Jihad threat

lol ok

Yikes

ARGUMENT

• HARKENS BACK TO HISTORICAL CONFLICTS NOT JUST KNIGHTHOOD
• By doing so, legitimizes the foundation of traditional masculinity/gender roles in western society by saying we need to protect women against this existential threat
• Legitimizes the threat by painting all Muslims as engaged in the same jihad as the "modern one"
• Therefore, Counter Jihad movement uses its anti-islam rhetoric NOT just to ban Muslims from Europe, but to put women in their place

KNIGHT IMAGERY

• Past Muslim conflicts shown to result in "rape of women and stolen children:

Explicitly counter Jihad movement

WesternWomen/Legitimacy

• DIRECTLY links feminism to rise in Muslim "colonization" of west
• Thereby paints west as victim as well

Knight/Legitimacy

• gender theory and affirmative action and all that ERODE the family base and therefore justify a cultural traditional reset into this knights templar model -> draws on historical military traditions this way

Uh oh

WesternWomen

Military

• "assault" of feminism compromises west

KNIGHT IMAGERY

MILITARY

• Role of women in military is degeneracy -> actually causes (male) "warriors" to leave and militaries to be compromised. -"Inferiority" of the male -> uses sexual harrassment charges to "keep men in line"

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• "inquisitors of political correctness" who must be "defeated" by standing up to them

lmao

Sex

• Side note, how does abstinence and Christian purity factor in here? I think he's explicitly said he doesn't agree with sex before marriage -> KNIGHTS

Sex

Unorthodox, women-liberated "authoritarian" families must be fought against -> miniatures of the authoritarian state

Blames promiscuity, etc on the unleashing of the "primeval" power of sex from its "civilized restraints"

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• Muslims, FEMINISISTS AND HOMOSEXUALS could be the "vanguard" of a communist revolution in Europe

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• Cultural Terrorism was acts that promoted ideas of free love, etc in schools and those which unmoored women from their traditional roles (implicit threat to monogamy/fear of abandonment by women)

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• This is a BATTLE with cultural marxism

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• Those who would oppose must embrace the "old rules" of our culture
• Explicitly says women should NOT be 'cops or soldiers" but instead remain housekeepers

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• Homosexuality a direct PHYSICALY threat to society that must be vanquished -> AIDS is voluntary and root of problem lies in the Gays™

CulturalMarxism

it ALLOWS Islamification

KNIGHTIMAGERY

• Cultural Marxism "looming over" western Europe like a colossus

Deconstructionism (post modernism) means reading meaning into texts that simply isn't there

CulturalMarxism

• White 'native" MEN are penalized by the state which acts in the interests of minorities / victims

CulturalMarxism Definition

EUROPE

cultural marxism contradicts human nature BECAUSE not everyone is meant to be equal

Again, not just relying on memory of warrior tropes to get rid of Islam -> but to counter emasculating ideologies (policical corectness)

EUROPE

• PORNOGRAPHY as a weapon?

lmao what

EUROPE

claims modern society is way more violent (carjacking, mugginf, other dogwhistle minority crimes)

EUROPE

Consistantly identifies all of European society as one "country" -> Knights Templar not a pan-European society? These conflicts not one bi-cultural clash, but a series of Christian nations bickering that temporarily aligned?

WesternWomen

• Idyllic 50s women devoted themselves to running households and men treated women "like ladies" -> emphasis on lots of (presumably white) children

WesternSociety

ideology and political correctedness (which is one) are not masculine because of these allowances -> therefore immoral (so Breivik's masculinity is drawn on from Knight's templar NOT just to denounce Islam, but also to reign in control at home back to the white Christian male

WesternWomen

• Claims that those who speak against ideology (conservatives) are greeted with hatred -> point out that WOMEN AND MEN SHOULD OCCUPY TRADITIONAL ROLES THAT REFLECT DIFFERENT NATURES -> HOMOSEXUALITY AND FEMINISM UNNATURAL (but how to tie to war?)

WesternWomen

Defines feminism as an ideology? -> therefore "wrong" since ideologies assume they are absolutely correct instead of the "nuance" of conservatism

Fuck you Breivik (test)

Again, in face of globalization (Americanism, neoliberal economics) -> resistance and creation of reinforced regional identity. Overall Cape Breton is in a very bleak situation -> highest child poverty rates, lack of educational opportunities, but regional identity exists despite this. Identifies CB as a region existing outside of a localized/municipal or national identity -> existing despite these

1960s: - American popular culture enters -> commercialization imminent. Documentary about the demise of fiddling tradition -> sparks organized communal attempts to revitalize this-> succeeds and is internationally recognizable by the 90s. Linked to broader cultural revival -> again, tie to fiddle article's assertions that fiddling allows a cultural umbrella to exist despite it being "Scottish" in origin -> celebrated in cross-cultural manner as a regional thing distinct from Canada, Scots, etc. (above national and ethnic identity) Also. this movement sparks more government inspired regionalization efforts -> Crown Corporation of Cape Breton Development Corporation (Devco) and the Industrial Development Division (IDD) 70s-90s.

Banfield migration can be seen as echo since this was one fo the "most dramatic movements of people in NFLD history" Defines migration as a cumulative result of individual decisions based on rational decisions / benefit/costs evaluation as opposed to something that happens within a fixed period, etc -> THEREFORE can be retroactively extended to the 30s, 40s since the same trend is almost verbatim followed. ALSO -> notes that permanent almost always preceded by seasonal migration (which Pauline's father partook in)

Crisis in fisheries of NFLD in late 19th-early 20th centuries mirrors the lack of work still present in the 30s, 40s that prompted the Banfield's relocation to Sydney / CB as industrialization. Mirrors in that they relocated from a rural economy to a predominantly industrial one -> Banfield's reactions "Like moving to New York" -> this makes the establishment of a tight knit community / regional identity even MORE impressive / compelling -> should be alienating, and yet Banfield's experiences closely resemble her's as a child growing up in NFLD. - Could be argued that NFLD has this unique identity too -> but closer inspection shows other reasons (as mentioned, that Banfield related to much of population, more ethnic/religious cohesion, actually a locality -> never went to St John's (none of her family members did aside from father) -> unlike later on when she bounced around entire island. -> doesn't mention this as a possibility in more rural setting.

DEFINES region as something distinct from a locality (city, etc) or nation-state -> economic, political, cultural, etc -> individuals and communities may develop attachments to this type of identity. In This study's case, primarily looking @ Cape Breton's Gaels -> underrepresented in research thus far

Cape Breton overall pretty bleak. Highest child poverty rates, substance abuse, lack of educational opportunities, and outmigration. It's the latter of these that actually CONTRIBUTES to CB's regionality (via isolation I guess).

Hmm...maybe, even for someone who felt confined and constricted by the heterosexual norms that surrounded her, still found company / friendship , etc

GENERAL: - Also worked at the bank in Sydney -> quits and joins SYDNEY's BIGGEST INDUSTRY -> STEEL PLANT

LEISURE: despite living decades apart and leading different lifestyles, enjoyed remarkably similar passtimes. Summer road trips, movie theatres (as COMMUNAL spaces again), sport, dance, music. Also involved in Canadian Girls in Training (CGIT) -> youth org run by Church that Nana was also a part of. Therefore partook in and enjoyed same communal forms of leisure guaranteed because of security and close social ties/atmosphere of neighbourly behaviour and friendliness. Also shows that all this extended beyond Sydney into the surrounding Cape Breton towns.

LEISURE: Obviously an outlier, but DID escape into the wilds -> showed it was secure enough and with company

OPPOSED TO NATION OF ISLAM AND SEPARATE BLACK IDENTITY > "segregation is not what we're working for" -> similar / opposite to what the Canadian identity peddled through MfM was -> just wanted to unify the world (but not really, just an ego boost).

labels it "Black supremacy" -> All black political community would be isolating

In either case, ONLY STUDENTS WHO'D RESIDED OUTSIDE OF THE COUNTY HAD ANY OPINIONS AT ALL ABOUT IT -> proves the isolation/detatchment from broader Black political sphere in America -> nationwide/ethnicity wide effort on both other cases's part.

Students still WANT education / see desire in it

test

MIXED LONG TERM EFFECTS on protestors: - Some become politically active - Others more "victims" than anything else - Protestors were small percentage of regional teenage pop -> distance and lack of transport limited their participation -> RURAL BLACKS vs URBAN JEWS? Also Black kids WORKING to support families (again, CLASS -> similar case for Jewish students?) So -> overall breakdown of connections between Black teenagers. Seems almost like the pandemic really. Did Jewish striking result in stronger ties?

Suit is filed ON BEHALF of students and request by them but, note, it was part of a broader "community organization effort" This is what SPARKED the case that would make up Brown v Board of Education Adults at NAACP impressed not with kids alone, but with "community effort" THIS results in schools shutting down -> had wanted better facilities before hand (contrast to Jewish strikers who resulted in end of segregation?)

Fiercer opposition to Black communities here than Jewish? Massive push (90% of pop) to defund Black school board

COMMUNITY RALLIES -> EDUCATE THEIR CHILDREN THEMSELVES

Again, Baptist minister L Francis Griffin LEADS a new direct action initiative in the 60s -> MOST people of the 50 arrested were teenagers. So maybe not LEADING the initiative but certainly suffering the effects / on the front lines.

REGION is isolated in the conservative south. Ties to rights/labour orgs like the AFSC / Religious Society of Friends

In THIS instance -> adult orgs are more preciptating the action -> seeking end to segregation via reopening of schools and end to discrimination in hiring. That said, teenage picketers still at the front lines. It IS effecting them SCHOOLS AS SITE OF PROTST AND CATALIST -> CHILDREN USED HERE TO DRIVE SOCIAL CONCERNS -> CONCERNS OF CHILDREN AT HEART OF CULTURE/ETHNICITY

Attitudes towards their culture -> tied up in resistance (southern black culture) -> want to fight but also to escape and "see the world"

Also using kids w/o permission -> appropriating famine images

Noted by author here: - Handouts appropriate the clenched fist iconography but replace with an outstretched hand -> no struggle AGAINST a political ideal/nation -> instead idk abstract forces

Adopts aesthetics of a protest movement

Assertion of national identity, again, as a heroic and kind young nation but, perhaps a darker interpretation, one that is above the developing world and not racialized.

Even NOT a protest event -> MAIN CONTRAST -> actually used to make adults think the kids are alright and in line with national values -> NOT protesting for something else

NATIONAL IDENTITY -> Canada as a nation of helpers, Jewish identity being explicitly nationalist too and both events help create sense of nation hood.

Young people NOT primary targets / exclusive participants -> but utilized to gain support (just like how segregation affected all Black community)

Still see children as AGENTS though -> like Black teens getting arrested on front lines -> call to action.

Use of INNOCENCE -> same with Black communities? (maybe Jewish ones subverted this)

Overall, community rallies BEHIND Jewish striking kids - eventiually leads to more action, stepping stone to creation of Jewish streams/classes within school boards -> eventual schools

Allegedly bridging gaps between race lines in solidarity later in life

Jewish kid strikers never disciplined / recieved quasi apology -> what result did the OTHER kids get? Dependant on race? Other circumstances?

Conversely, how much agency did the suburban kids exercise?

What ISSUES are they addressing and how do these impact the children? - specifically related to schooling? ALSO -> how do schools faciliatte these actions ?

BROADER SENSE OF RISING MILITANCY (or activism) within community at large

OVERALL: The children's strike asserted the kids' Jewish identity by resisting antisemitism (ie, cultural attacks AGAINST their own culture). Also established the kids' belief /perception of themselves as operating members of the working class/ strikers in LINE WITH THEIR PARENTS who were labor-activists.

So... looking for: - Links to parents (or failing to identify) - Links to CULTURE because of oppression - Kids viewing THEMSELVES as activists (probably third reading/walkathon.

Violence creates specific discourses around the events in terms of collective and individual memory Discredits and silences individuals (Black students in this case) Violence forges memories torn with pain -> collective memory leaves no room for ambiguity (us vs them) Public histories are thus tarnished by these (ie, silences abound in memories of violence -> us vs them for the people, them vs us for the narratives spun by the state to discredit those who had violence inflicted upon them Result is to have competing narratives that ultimately leave gaps/silences between them