moderate and significant association was found between mother-reported father–toddler RTP-F and RTP-Q; fathers with higher quality RTP tended to play RTP more often, according to mothers

No significant correlation was found between father-reported RTP-F and RTP-Q.

those with greater caregiving responsibilities worked shorter hours

fathers who were younger tended to work longer hours (r = −.40, p = .001); fathers with higher education levels were more likely to be employed (r = .694, p < .001) and have less caregiving responsibility

Girls had significantly higher scores on motor skills, t = −2.0 (62), p = .05, Cohen’s d = 0.5, and there was a trend for girls to also have higher language and cognitive nominal scores (p < .07). There was no between-group difference in social-emotional development

differences between boys and girls, independent samples t-test were conducted

Almost half of the fathers reported that they frequently engaged in RTP with their toddler, with 44% of fathers reporting that they engaged in RTP ‘everyday’ with their child (Table 3). Of note, only 34% of mothers reported that fathers engaged in RTP ‘everyday’.

stress was reported to be within a clinically typical range (68%); however, 11 fathers were in the high stress percentiles and nine fathers in the clinically significant stress percentiles

Regarding fathers’ parenting factors, over half the fathers reported that they had a small but substantial caregiving role (59%). One third reported that care was shared equally (31%), and only 5% of fathers reported that they were the primary carer for the toddler

Parenting Stress Index Third Edition—Short Form

Father–toddler RTP frequency (RTP-F) was assessed using the Parent Involvement Scale (PIS), specifically created for this study, which included a question on frequency of RTP, as created by Paquette et al

Prior to completing RTP-Q coding, regular meetings and training were conducted until both coders reach a high level of agreement and were competent in play coding. One researcher coded all recorded play sessions, with 30% of recordings being randomly selected for coding by a second researcher to establish interrater reliability. For the videos that were scored by two coders, the average of the RTP-Q ratings was calculated and used in the analyses. There was a high reliability between coders (ICC = 0.96) and high internal consistency

16 to 80

items assess paternal warmth, control, dominance, sensitivity, physical engagement and playfulness, using both individual and dyadic items, on a five-point Likert scale ranging from ‘poor’ to ‘excellent’

independently completed by two coders while watching the videoed dyadic father–toddler RTP interactions

physical play session was assessed using an observational measure, the Rough-and-Tumble Play Quality Scale

Bayley-III is one of the most recognised assessments of infant and toddler development (Connolly et al., 2012), with strong psychometric properties, including good test-retest reliability (r = .67; Bayley, 2006) and predictive validity

information about the toddler including age, sex, ethnicity, birth order and day-care attendance was collected

questionnaire was used to collect information from both parents, and included father and mother age, marital status, education, employment, work hours, family income and care responsibility

For the purpose of the current manuscript, only the physical play (i.e., rough-and-tumble) paradigm was analysed.

In free play, fathers were asked to play whatever they want, as they would at home without toys

physical play, fathers were told “now you have time for some physical play, we are interested in ‘rough and tumble play’ … do what you would at home with your child”.

risky play, a slide with two small steps was introduced into the playroom; fathers were asked to play with their toddler as they normally would with a similar toy.

fathers were given the two bags and asked to play with the content in each in turn; there were no instructions on what or how to play.

session, fathers were instructed to engage in play with their toddler as they would at home across four seven-minute play paradigms. The play paradigms included: two-bag play, risky play, physical play

Play session

developmental session and a play session

was recruited via posters and flyers distributed via local child-care centres, play groups, and online parent support forums.

final sample for analysis consisted of 64 fathers aged between 24 and 49 years old, who were either married (81%) or de facto (19%; Table 1). Fathers were generally well educated, with 58% of fathers reporting that they had completed tertiary education and an additional 19% indicating that they had completed post-school vocational training qualifications.

Exclusion criteria included known child developmental delay, or an inability of the father or toddler to engage in physical activities such as running and jumping as this would confound the quality of parent–child RTP

71 families (father, mother and toddler). Families were eligible to participate if the toddler was aged between 18 and 24 months old, as this period corresponds with a time when father–child RTP is observable in play interactions

Our objectives were to examine the strength and direction of association of the quality of RTP with fathers’ personal characteristics (age, education, employment, workhours, income), fathers’ parenting factors (caregiving responsibility, parenting stress and RTP frequency), child characteristics (sex, age, birth order, and day-care attendance) and child developmental domains

In order to gain a more complete understanding of RTP, the aim of this study is to examine father and child characteristics that may be associated with the quality of father–child RTP in children aged 18–24 months (toddlers)

with father–daughter RTP play behaviours more often mimicking behaviours related to caring, protecting, and rescuing, and involving more language, compared to father–son RTP, which involves greater levels of fighting and play strength competition

RTP is associated with a desire to bond and affiliate with others, whereas aggression is associated with a motivational system to survive

while rough and tumble play (RTP), as a subset of physical play, incorporates the physical interaction elements of competition and cooperation (e.g., letting the child win often but lose sometimes), dominance and dominance swapping (e.g., being in control, but also periodically swapping roles so that the child dominates the play), playfulness, and positive emotion

common in this type of play

Parent-reported questionnaires (demographic information, frequency of father–toddler RTP, father parenting stress, and child social-emotional development) were collected, observations of child developmental attainment (Bayley-III) completed and father–toddler RTP play interactions were rated for quality

This study examined the association between quality of father–toddler RTP and a range of paternal characteristics, parenting factors, child demographics and child developmental domains.

you are engaging in play.

You start to play when your child is an infant

The monkey picked up the razor “and cut he own throat and killed hisself,” McQueen said. That’s exactly what the man wanted, my great-grandfather said. “He feel satisfy dat de monkey done dead and he have he revengence.

More than half the high-school seniors surveyed reported that debate in the classroom — a proven practice of good teaching — was infrequent.

They are very ignorant, cruel and wretched

especially in a moment when a dedicated minority seems intent on destroying what makes us unique

been composed of dissenters from the establishments of their several countries, and have brought with them a temper and character far from alien to that of the people with whom they mixed.

he idea that rights, such as the right to free speech, property, and self-preservation can be observed in nature and precede politics or government.

n his book, Hartz observed repeatedly that America was “unique.

America lacked a feudal past it made unfertile soil for either socialism or the European conservatism that unites church with big government.

I believe in American exceptionalism, just as I suspect that the Brits believe in British exceptionalism and the Greeks believe in Greek exceptionalism

Trump himself was not fond of the term “American exceptionalism”

So, it’s important that America’s students be taught again that their country is exceptional.

est scores in those subjects had declined in recent years and that fewer

U.S. history, geography, and civics indicate that our students cannot explain the ideas behind representative government that set the U.S. apart

60 or over agree)

It was, in fact, one of two educational items in his “Fighting For You” plan, the other being school choice for every child.

return to teaching American

exceptionalism.

ey think they’re trying to "x the project, the way that only they knowhow.”

If it’s the DNA, there’s nothingyou can do. What do you do? Alter your DNA?

Hannah-Jones’ essay outlines how the ideology of white supremacythat sustained slavery still endures today

one of the primary reasons the colonists decided to declaretheir independence from Britain was because they wanted to protect theinstitution of slavery

“Far from an attempt to discreditthe 1619 Project, our letter is intended to help it

biggest obstacle to teaching slavery effectively in America is the deep,abiding American need to conceive of and understand our history as‘progress,

American high-school students know that slavery was the cause of the CivilWar, that the Constitution protected slavery without explicitly mentioningit, or that ending slavery required a constitutional amendment

If you think anti-black racism stillshapes American society, then you are in agreement with the thrust of the1619 Project

worded letter might not seemparticularly signi%cant. But given the stature of the historians involved, theletter is a serious challenge to the credibility of the 1619 Project,

$e letter refers to “matters ofveri%able fact” that “cannot be described as interpretation or ‘framing’” andsays the project re'ected “a displacement of historical understanding byideology.

1619 Project, named for the date of the%rst arrival of Africans on American soil, sought to place “the consequencesof slavery and the contributions of black Americans at the very center of ournational narrative.

high-school curriculum

the project—a historical analysis of how slaveryshaped American political, social, and economic institutions

American government,” but also, in some instances, “constitutionalgovernment” and — yes — “democracy.

The debate wasreally about bigger disagreements that transcended party lines: about how to deal withpopulism and protest, and about whether the United States is a unified entity of citizens ora conglomeration of groups divided by race, class, language and other identities

Teach us about everything — the good and the bad, so we can learn to think forourselves

Hiding our nation’s sins isn’t the right way to do it,

Many of the students who protested were less worried about terminology than about theway the standards dealt with gender and race.

It belittles my subject,” she said.

epublic

democracy is government

political scientists and legal scholars say that the United States is both a representativedemocracy and a republic — and that there is no contradiction between those terms.

Georgia has also debated the term, eventually settling, in 2016, on standards that use thephrase “representative democracy/republic.

They contended that the curriculum ought to focus more on the nation’s triumphs than itssins

, originalist reading of the United States’ founding documents.

They drew attention to a long-simmering debate over whether “republic” is abetter term than “democracy” to describe the American form of government

prominent conservatives

which the word “democratic” was dropped from “core democratic values,” and the use ofthe word “democracy” was reduced

provide not a national curriculum but a framework that all 50 states, the District, territories and tribal nations would take seriously and embrace. He acknowledged the challenge that presents but said the need is urgent

Unlike with math and science, there is no nationally agreed upon set of standards for teaching social studies. Each state issues social studies guidelines for school districts to follow, and these requirements vary widely.

new focus on educating students to become more knowledgeable citizens calls for an investment in teacher training, curriculum development and an approach that would emphasize teaching of history and civics to the same degree as STEM and English language arts courses.

The report calls for an inquiry-based approach that would focus less on memorizing dates of wars and names of presidents and more on exploring in depth the questions and developments, good and bad, that have created the America we live in today and plan to live in well beyond the nation’s 250th anniversary in 2026

but also to be able to talk and discuss with others who disagree with you and to form a path forward. And all of those things are very critical right now.

The relative neglect of civic education in the past half-century—a period of wrenching change—is one important cause of our civic and political dysfunction

a direct line can be drawn from today’s civics crises to a long-standing failure to adequately teach American government, history and civic responsibility.

who study their programs focus on individual acts of compassionand kindness, not on collective social action and the pursuit of social justice

exclusive focus

But theyare not about democratic citizenship. To the extent that emphasis on thesecharacter traits detracts from other important democratic priorities, it mayactually hinder rather than make possible democratic participation andchange.

are not inherently about democracy

that thisemphasis distracts attention from analysis of the causes of social problemsand from systemic solutions; that volunteerism and kindness are put forwardas ways of avoiding politics and policy

justice-oriented students must developthe ability to communicate with and learn from those who hold different per-spectives

Indeed, those working to prepare justice-oriented citizens for ademocracy do not aim to impart a fixed set of truths or critiques regardingthe structure of the society.

ocial change and social justice does not imply an emphasis on particularpolitical perspectives, conclusions, or priorities

Justice-Oriented

Those who emphasize social justice, however, would worry more that whencitizens do get together, they often fail to focus on root causes of problems

articipatory

Personally

dvocates teaching students to “treat others with respect, . . . deal peacefullywith anger, . . . be considerate of the feelings of others, . . . follow the GoldenRule, . . . use good manners,” and so on

Programsthat promote justice-oriented citizens do not necessarily promote personalresponsibility or participatory citizenship

article demonstratesthat the narrow and often ideologically conservative conception of citizen-ship embedded in many current efforts at teaching for democracy reflects notarbitrary choices but, rather, political choices with political consequences

personally responsible, participatory, and justice oriented

article calls atten-tion to the spectrum of ideas about what good citizenship is and what goodcitizens do that are embodied in democratic education programs.

You have to pay private tuition in addition to taxes — a strong incentive to keep your child in a public school

In the suburbs almost all of the money goes for education; in the inner cities much of it must go to preserving discipline, preventing vandalism, or repairing its effects.

The same phenomenon is present whenever government bureaucracy takes over at the expense of consumer choice: whether in the post office, in garbage collection, or in the many examples in other chapters

n 1920 local funds made up 83 percent of all revenues of public schools, federal grants less than 1 percent. By 1940 the local share had fallen to 68 percent. Currently it is less than one half.

Needless to say, the public school system was not viewed as “socialist” but simply as “American.”

ower has instead gravitated to professional educators.

oubly tragic for it has always been the official ethic of public schooling that it was the poor and the oppressed who were its greatest beneficiaries

Parents complain about the declining quality of the schooling their children receive. Many are even more disturbed about the dangers to their children’s physical well-being. Teachers complain that the atmosphere in which they are required to teach is often not conducive to learning. Increasing numbers of teachers are fearful about their physical safety, even in the classroom. Taxpayers complain about growing costs. Hardly anyone maintains that our schools are giving the children the tools they need to meet the problems of life. Instead of fostering assimilation and harmony, our schools are increasingly a source of the very fragmentation that they earlier did so much to prevent

he neighborhood school, and control by the local school board, was the rule. Then a so-called reform movement got under way, particularly in the big cities, sparked by the wide differences in the ethnic and social composition of different school districts and by the belief that professional educators should play a larger role

Increasingly, government came to play a larger role, first by contributing to financial support, later by establishing and administering government schools.

Many of the immigrants who streamed over the Atlantic in the second half of the nineteenth century had a thirst for education. They eagerly seized the opportunities available to them in the metropolises and large cities where they mostly settled.

there is no evidence for the superiority of privatization in education

proponents of school choice have the upper hand because they are backed by some of the nation’s richestpeople, whose campaign donations give them an outsize voice in shaping public policy.

shebelieves that the profit motive is the main engine behind the charter movement.

The company collects full state tuition, even though it hasnone of the expenses of a real school, like custodians, transportation, a library, a social worker, groundskeepers, heat, orother utilities

the founder of the Pennsylvania Cyber Charter School admitted that he had stolen $8 million from the companyfor his own use.

lowest-performing schools

there are federal tax credits for those who invest

community public schools

enounced charters and declared they were a threat to public schools, like vouchers

Shanker used his national platform to proposecharters as schools-within-schools, staffed by union teachers, free to try new methods to educate reluctant and unwillingstudents, and encouraged to share what they learned with the host public school

chools emphasize creativity, joy in learning, the arts, and physicaleducation. Child poverty is low, and children get free medical care.

While many American schools have abandoned recess to make more time for testing, Finnish schools offerrecess after every class

teachers burn out, and high rates of attrition as students leave who can’t meet their expectations

No Child Left Behind law, standardized testing is considered the only measure of education, although such tests arepoor proxies for genuine education.

unexplained reasons, Chris Whittle exited this venture in the spring of 2015

Congress would authorize vouchers for student tuition

didn’t achieve the predicted profits, and it didn’t achieve thepredicted test score gain

President George H.W. Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton

“design team”

eleven months a year

Whittle announced his program in 1991 at the National Press Club inWashington, D.C. He said he intended to revolutionize public education by opening a chain of private schools across thenation in which tuition would be less than the government’s cost of public schools but student performance would besuperior.

As private corporations, they are exempt from statelabor laws and from state laws that govern disciplinary policies.

charter schools have smaller numbers of students whose native language is not English and smaller numbers of studentswith serious disabilities as compared to neighborhood public schools. B

Ieducation and seeks to turn public dollars over to entrepreneurs, corporate chains, mom-and-pop operations, religiousorganizations, and almost anyone else who wants to open a school.In early September, Donald Trump declared his commitment to privatization of the nation’s public schools. He held a pressconference at a low-performing charter school in Cleveland run by a for-profit entrepreneur. He announced that if electedpresident, he would turn $20 billion in existing federal education expenditures into a block grant to states, which they coulduse for vouchers for religious schools, charter schools, private schools, or public schools. These are funds that currentlysubsidize public schools that enroll large numbers of poor students. Like most Republicans, Trump believes that “schoolchoice” and competition produce better education, even though there is no evidence for this belief. As president, Trumpwill encourage competition among public and private providers of education, which will reduce funding for public schools.No high-performing nation in the world has privatized its schools.The motives for the privatization movement are various. Some privatizers have an ideological commitment to free-marketcapitalism; they decry public schools as “government schools,” hobbled by unions and bureaucracy. Some are certain thatschools need to be run like businesses, and that people with business experience can manage schools far better thaneducators. Others have a profit motive, and they hope to make money in the burgeoning “education industry.” Theadherents of the business approach oppose unions and tenure, preferring employees without any adequate job protectionand merit pay tied to test scores. They never say, “We want to privatize public schools.” They say, “We want to save poorchildren from failing schools.” Therefore, “We must open privately managed charter schools to give children a choice,”and “We must provide vouchers so that poor families can escape the public schools.”The privatization movement has a powerful lobby to advance its cause. Most of those who support privatization arepolitical conservatives. Right-wing think tanks regularly produce glowing accounts of charter schools and vouchers alongwith glowing reports about their success. The American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), a right-wing organizationfunded by major corporations and composed of two thousand or so state legislators, drafts model charter school legislation,which its members introduce in their state legislatures. Every Republican governor and legislature has passed legislationfor charters and vouchers. About half the states have enacted voucher legislation or tax credits for nonpublic schools, eventhough in some of those states, like Indiana and Nevada, the state constitution explicitly forbids spending state funds onreligious schools or anything other than public schools.f the privatization movement were confined to Republicans, there might be a vigorous political debate about the wisdomof privatizing the nation’s public schools. But the Obama administration has been just as enthusiastic about privatelymanaged charter schools as the Republicans. In 2009, its own education reform program, Race to the Top, offered a prizeof $4.35 billion that states could compete for. In order to be eligible, states had to change their laws to allow or increase thenumber of charter schools, and they had to agree to close public schools that had persistently low test scores.In response to the prodding of the Obama administration, forty-two states and the District of Columbia currently permitcharter schools. As thousands of neighborhood public schools were closed, charter schools opened to take their place.Today, there are about seven thousand publicly funded, privately managed charter schools, enrolling nearly three millionstudents. Some are run for profit. Some are online schools, where students sit at home and get their lessons on a computer.Some operate in shopping malls. Some are run by fly-by-night characters hoping to make money. Charters open and closewith disturbing frequency; from 2010 to 2015, more than 1,200 charters closed due to academic or financial difficulties,while others opened.Charters have several advantages over regular public schools

In order to be eligible, states had to change their laws to allow or increase thenumber of charter schools, and they had to agree to close public schools that had persistently low test scores

We want to save poorchildren from failing schools.” Therefore, “We must open privately managed charter schools to give children a choice,”and “We must provide vouchers so that poor families can escape the public schools.

public dollars over to entrepreneurs, corporate chains, mom-and-pop operations, religiousorganizations, and almost anyone else who wants to open a school

The New York Times recently reported that privatizationof pensions in Chile was a disaster, leaving many older people impoverished

wo hundredand fifty inmates participated in the riot to protest the poor quality of the food and medical care. Since the election, thestock price of for-profit prisons has soared

When possible it eliminates unions, raises prices toconsumers (even charging homeowners for putting out fires), cuts workers’ benefits, expands working hours, and lays offveteran employees who earn the most

Privatization means that a public service is taken over by a for-profit business, whose highest goal is profit. Investorsexpect a profit when a business moves into a new venture.

e increasingly taken over a wide array of civic and financial services that arecentral to American life.

by supporting public education, engaging with their local schools, showing wisdom and compassion in decisions affecting schools, and advocating for better and more equitable public education

rivate schools would accept the higher-achieving students whose families could afford to pay, or would give scholarships to the best students, but what about the rest?

In a democracy, certain functions, including education, are intended to promote the public good as much as private interests

citizens point to the poor performance of some public schools as a reason to shift responsibility for education to the private sector.

beyond the school, such as inadequate funding, lack of community support, or communi-ties strained by poverty and social dysfunction

Schools with high dropout rates are not improving the economic well-being of their young people or the social conditions of their community. Schools that serve a homogenous neighborhood may have difficulty teaching students how to get along with others from different backgrounds

Some schools are not effectively teaching stu-dents the knowledge and skills needed to succeed in the workforce or participate fully in civic life

Education serves a variety of purposes that are not discussed in this publication, either because they are not unique to public schools or because they relate to individual benefits rather than collective goals.

many Americans agree that the missions cited above are important reasons for having public schools.

public schools are expected to have programs to feed low-income children, provide before- and after-school care, prevent substance abuse and violence, and address health issues

People with more education are less likely than undereducated adults to commit crimes, be homeless, or abuse drugs, to cite just a few examples. Those with more education enjoy better health and more stable families.

investing in public education is one of the surest means to improving a nation’s economic standing.

students attend public schools, the quality of the public education system not only affects an individual’s ability to get a good job but also shapes the nation’s ability to compete in a global economy

offer vocational and technical education for students who learn best through hands-on, work-oriented instruction.

t public schools have a special responsibility to help all students to become economically self-sufficient, including students with disabilities or academic problems.

teaching students the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in their careers is a major goal of all schools, private as well as public.

Adults 18 and older who completed high school earned an average of $28,645 in 2004—about 1.5 times as much as the average of $19,169 earned by adults who lacked a high diploma. Adults with a bachelor’s degree earned almost 1.8 times as much as those with just a high school diploma

As people know from their own experience, individual earnings are strongly linked to educational attain-ment.

Providing education for children of the poor and middle class would prepare them to obtain good jobs, which in turn would reduce disparities in wealth and strengthen the nation’s economic growt

citizens can influence policies and practices affecting public education

Public school classrooms are one of the first places where children form a community that mirrors the larger society.

public schools fill several unique roles

U.S. students showed only an average under-standing of the basic concepts and institutions of democracy

oday, some schools offer character education, encourage students to volunteer or participate in community life, or teach them how to evaluate information critically and engage in dialogue and debate

public schools enroll students who come mostly from the same racial/ethnic or socioeco-nomic background—whether a largely Latino inner-city school or a primarily white rural school.

the ability to understand other perspectives and deal with conflict are critical skills.

Although many private schools enroll a diverse student body, they are less diverse as a group than public schools and do not have the same responsibility to forge a cohesive society.

when children from different backgrounds shared in a common education, class conflict would disappear and people would interact with greater civility.

Part of building a common culture involves teaching students from different racial, ethnic, religious, and economic backgrounds to respect each other and get along.

by an out-of-field teacher, compared with 5% of students in low-poverty high schools. Disparities in education funding and quality continue in part because education in the U.S. remains primarily a state and local function. States and communities vary not only in wealth, but also in their capacity and willingness to tax their citizens. In recent years, gov-ernment policies have tried to equalize resources among schools in wealthy and poor com-munities. In addition, major court cases have focused on whether states are fulfilling their constitutional obligation to provide all students with an adequate education. Ensuring equal opportunity remains an essential mission for public education. Despite improvements over the past 15 years in the average achievement of African American and Latino students, achievement gaps remain between these groups and their white and Asian counterparts, according to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Similar achievement gaps persist between low-income and higher-income students. Under the No Child Left Behind Act, public schools are held accountable for closing these gaps, while private schools are not. Moreover, a higher share of minority and low-income children attend public schools than attend private schools. ä Forty-three percent of public school students are minority children, compared with 24% of private school students. Although family income information for private school students is sketchy, 44% of public school 4th graders come from families with incomes low enough to qualify for free or reduced-price lunches, compared with just 6% of private school students, according to NAEP. 3. To unify a diverse population Why We Still Need Public Schools The most effectual, and indeed the only effectual, way to produce this individuality and harmony of national feeling and character is to bring our children into the same schools and have them educated together. —Calvin Stowe, theology professor and abolitionist, Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the Western Literary Institute, 1836 For two centuries, public schools have been the main institution in American society respon-

44% of public school 4th graders come from families with incomes low enough to qualify for free or reduced-price lunches, compared with just 6% of private school students, according to NAEP.

Under the No Child Left Behind Act, public schools are held accountable for closing these gaps, while private schools are not.

Ensuring equal opportunity remains an essential mission for public education

States and communities vary not only in wealth, but also in their capacity and willingness to tax their citizens. In recent years, gov-ernment policies have tried to equalize resources among schools in wealthy and poor com-munities.

5% of students in low-poverty high schools.

Students in public schools with high poverty or high minority enrollments are more likely than other students to be taught by inexperienced or “out-of-field” teachers

access to advanced courses

public schools as the institution with the greatest capac-ity to improve people’s futures and change public attitudes

Not only must public schools educate all students, but they must also take steps intended to ensure that all students are taught by highly qualified teachers and achieve at high levels.

Public schools must also educate students whose academic or disciplinary records might keep them from being admitted to a private school.

. These relative shares have stayed roughly the same

Private schools, though important to many families, were not designed to be a universal system.

they are not required by law or expected by society to carry out these purposes as a primary mission.

4. To prepare people for citizenship in a democratic society

American public schools have been expected to fulfill certain public missions that go beyond the purely academic purposes of all schools, public and private.

brought additional funding to public schools, along with new requirements to meet the special needs of particular groups of students.

equity.